- Stage of knowing more about other's personalities

- It is among the groups when it comes to the very first time

- People's ideas start coming out, might start having/seeing conflicts

- Who I like/dislike

- Establish rules, how the groups is going to function

 - Decide on rules

- Once accomplish task, groups will no longer exist

- Does no apply to all groups. Family don't adjourne

1) Group Leader - who keeps everyone on track. Opinions are most valued and being followed

2) Compromiser - go with the flow and don't like conflicts

3) Dominator - person who says it's my way, not willing to compromise and put people down

4) Devil's Advocate - person that likes to keep debate going (dominator's pal)

5) Malcontent - person who doesn't want to be here and get things done

- Submitting on relenting to an alternate opinion because you now believe that alternate opinion to be true

- You've been converted. It only exists when your mind is truly changed or convinced

- Submitting or relenting to an alternate opinion even though you believe that alternate opinion to be false

- Going along with the group because you don't want to upset anyone. Mind is not really convinced

A pattern of deliberation that group members use when their desire for unanimity overrides their motivation to assess all available plans of actions

- Ignore dissenting opinions: shut down others opinions that are not valuable

- Suppress conflict just to get along: don't want to fight, not picking sides

- Fail to consider all solutions

- Makes group only believe in one thing

- "We are such a good group, we are peaceful and we can get everything done on time"

- A group's ability to remain unaffected by outside influenced

- Many group meet so frequently that they become immune from what takes place outside of their group experience

- Narrowed 接觸的人有限 

- When groups are led by individuals who put their personal agenda first

- You're led by a person who has personal interest in group outcomes 

- Failure to provide norms or rules for solving group issues

- No procedure for making decisions

- Pressure ecerted on the group by issues and events both inside and outside of the group

- When stress is high, groups usually rally around their leaders and affirm their beliefs

- Outcomes are usually not so good when people are on the stress 

Erroneous belief that the group is more than it is

- Illusion of invulnerability: belief that the group is special enough to overcome obstacles 

- A belief in the inherent morality of the group: assumption that the group members are thoughtful and good; therefore the decisions they make will be good 

A group's willingness to ignore differences in people and warnings about poor group decisions 

- Out-group stereotypes: stereotyped perceptinons of group enemies or competitors 

- Collective rationalization: situation in which group members ignore warnings about their decisions (when group ignore warnings)

1) Require oversigh and control

2) Embrace whistle-blowing (process in which individuals report unehical or illgal behaviors to others) in the group

3) Allow for objection

4) Balance consensus 一致 and majority rule 

- Occurs when people act or behave in a way due to the desire to preserve group harmony and receive positive evaluations from others

- Our desire to follow the norms (you want to be normal, not strange)

- Threaten people that they might be disliked if they don't follow the norm (peer pressure)

- Occurs when people have the goal of making high quality decisions or task performance 

- I'm not just going to put pressure on you, actually try to persuade you based on evidence

When are each type of influence strongest? 

Normative Influence

- When task is ambiguous: if we don't know what we're doing, there's no information to rely on

- When decisions are public

- When decisions must be unanimous: put peer pressure on people to go with the flow

When the group leader is powerful and directive: the leader will set the norm, they won't stand for follower that disagrees

When are each type of influence strongest? 

- When decidions are unambiguous: clear tasks

- When decisions are private

- When decidions are based on majority rule: allowed to disagree

- When there is no powerful leader: everyone brings in equal amount of information = more inputs

Jumping Jack Exercise

- First ask him if he works out, and then ask him to demonstrate the jumping jack

- Start witha  small request

Jumping Jack Exercise

- Ask her directly to do the jumping jack

- Start with a large request and they might reject, so you can start bargain 

Jumping Jack Exercise

- Use one dollar to make the girl do jumping jack 

- Use the power to influence others

Jumping Jack Exercise

- When advertise conforms you to use same product as everyone else

- We don't want to be an oddball (you do it when everyone else is doing it and stops when everyone else stops)

Groups and organizations are produced and reproduced through the use of rules and resources (groups are always changing and adapting different rules)

- Rules: general routines that the group has or follows in accomplishing its goals (instruction manual on how t odo in order to accomplish goals)

- Resources: the power that actors bring to the group (material assistant a group gets from the parent organization to accomplish goals)

- Groups and organizations are produced and reproduced through the use of rules and resources

- Communication rules serve as both the medium for, and an outcome of, interactions

Power structures are present in organizations and guide the decision making process

Material assistance used to help groups accomplish their goals 

- Suppose a group of university students wants to have access to a facility where they can work out during the breaks between classes or during their off time. Some of the group's members decide to write a proposal to the administrators. Thus, a plan for providing allocative, or material, resources has been established 

Interpersonal assistance used to help groups accomplish their goals

- Authoritative resources allow a person to execute power in an organization. Every person possesses a degree of power and influence on the operations of an organization 

French and Raven's Five Bases of Social Power

Reward Power

 Perception tht another person has the ability to provide positive outcomes

- These rewards may come in the form of praise, material rewards, or simply removal of negative aspects of the system 

- Tim's employees may decide to accommodate his request to address him by his first name because they perceive him as having power to promote them. Reward power in this case is a resource that is affecting communication in the org

French and Raven's Five Bases of Social Power

Coerceive Power

Perception that another person has the ability to achieve compliance because of established personal relationship (opposite of reward power)

- It is based on the expectation that an individual has the ability to exact punishment

- If Tim's employees fear that they will be demoted or fired as a result of failing to comply with his wishes to establish relatoinships on a fristname basis, coercive power may be influencing decisions and communication 

French and Raven's Five Bases of Social Power

Perception that another person has the ability to achieve compliance because of established personal relationships

- Perhaps Tim's employees choose to address him by his first name primarily because he is a friendly person who demonstrates a genuine interest in his workers, then the resource guiding the communication decisions is due to referent power

- People tend to follow what celebrity wears

French and Raven's Five Bases of Social Power

Perceptoin that another person has the ability to exert influence because of title or position

- If shift managers decide to retain the current communication rules simply because they respect Wayne and his tenure with the company, legitimate power is a resource guiding their decision 

- Earned based on title/position

French and Raven's Five Bases of Social Power

Perception that another person has the ability to exert influence because of special knowledge or expertise (專門技術)

- If this shift managers decide to base their decision to adopt a less formal environment in the workplace on Darnell's knowledge, his expert power serves as a resource in the decision 

Human activity is the source that creates and recreates the social environment in which we exist 

1) Agency - behaviors or activities used in social environments

2) Agent - a person engaging in behaviors or activities in social environments 

- Students serve as the agents who engage in the agency of atteniding classes at a college. The context of the classroom provides a template of rules that the agents(students) are expected to follow

A person's ability to monitor his or her actions or behaviors 

1) Discursive consciousness - a person's ability to articulate personal goals or behaviors (knowledge that can be expressed through words to others)

2) Practical consciousness - a person's inability to articulate personal goals or behaviors (actions/feelings that can't be put into words)

- Rules and resources used to guide organizational decisions about behavior or actions 

- Individuals choose to follow rules or alter them, which has implications for future communication interactions

- Social integration refers to the reciprocity of communication behaviors among persons in interactions and form expectations for future interactions base on previous behavior 

Reciprocity 相互作用 of communication behavior in interaction 

- This is an ongoing process whereby members of an organizatino become acquainted (認識的) with one another and form expectations based on previous impressions or information that is learned 

goal-directed or goal-oriented type of leadership. This type of leadership is good when you need to stay focused on goals and move as a unit toward common objectives

- A leader is a person who directs and influences a group toward group or individual goals

- A leader can aries in two ways:

1) Assignment

2) Emerging 

Suggests that anyone can be a leader if they have the right style of leadership

- Autocratic: characterized by individual control over all decisions and little input from group members

- Democratic: gives followers a vote in nearly every decision the team makes

- Laissez Faire: leaders are hands-off and allow group members to make the decisions

- Successful leadership id dependent on the personal characterstics of the leader AND the nature of the group situation

- Leader Characteristics:

1) Task Motivated

2) Relationship Motivated

- Situational Characteristics:

1) Leader-member relations

2) Task structure

3) Position power 

- Well informed

- Provides direction and structure

- Skillful communicator

- Adapts leadership style as needed

- Democratic

- Able to manage complexity

- Getting things done, have goals to acheve (to make money)

- To accomplish goals

- Work with other people within the organization in order to accomplish goals

- Can't accomplish goals individually (in order to be more effective)

- Engage a lot of information sharing. When people don't share information, an organization is likely to fail

- Much more serious and more impacts when it comes to the decision making

- Can be very influential

- When you work at an organization, you spend time with people and they fulfill your social net-working 

- There is a potential factor that encourages you to interact with other

Perspectives on Organizational Communication

Functiona/Traditional

Understand organizations through the eyes of an effective manager

- Managerial focus on whther people are effective or not

- Very objective and scientific

Understand organizations through the eyes of its members

- How do workers respond to the managers, how worker's relationship is with each other (how they communicate)

- Much more subjective

Understand organizations through the eyes of the marginalized members (someone who doesn't hold power, and have discrimination against)

- Interested in power dynamic

- Subjective 

Communication Networks in Organizations

Centralized 

A few central members link communication within a group (a manager who gets feedback from some member and report to the boss)

Pros:

- Efficient for simple tasks

- Takes advantage of a competent leader

- Central person is satisfied

Cons:

- Non-central members are less satisfied

- Central person could be overloaded

- Limist inventiveness 

Some members communicate with others only indirectly through others (hierarchy) 

Pros:

- Extends membership inputs to the group

- Reduces unnecessary participation of specialized members

Cons:

- Potential for miscommunication is high

- Peripheral (外面的) members are less committed  

All members communicate directly with all other members

Pros: 

- Increased satisfaction

- Increased inventiveness

- Better performance on complex tasks

Cons:

- Time consuimg 

- Organizational culture is the essence of organizational life

- Organizational culture is an intricately (複雜的) designed web of associations

- Organizational members must adapt their communication behavior to fit within the overal organizational culture 

- Members create and maintain a shared sense or organizational reality (people make/maintain the culture)

The use and interpretation of symbols are critical to an organization's culture (symbols are meaningful and are how we define culture)

Cultures vary across organizations 

- Physical Symbols: logo for companies, the way you dress. Any material and object you can touch

- Behavioral Symbols: ceremonies, traditions, or rituals that define the culture (reward wall)

- Verbal Symbols: jokes, nicknames, stories, and histories of an organization  

- Managing information is a major issue for organizations

- Organizations are characterized by ambiguity and uncertainty

- Organizing is a process of communicatin to reduce ambiguity

- Human organizations exist in an information environment (possibility for question, obtaining information are endless)

- The information an organization receives differs in terms of equivocality (information varies depend on how certain it is

- Human organizations engage in information processing to reduce equivocality of information

- Equivocality is the extent to which organizational messages are uncertain, ambiguous, and/or unpredictable

- Reducing Equivocality

1) Enactment - surving how ambiguous an environment is

2) Selection - what're we gonna do to reduce ambiguity? What are the steps?

3) Retention - analyze how effective we've been on reducing ambiguity 

Organizational rules stating that decisinos regarding equivocality should be made in the least amount of time 

- These rules prevent people from askingt hose who are not knowledgeable on the topic 

Organizational rules stating that the most knolwedgeable workers should resolve equivocality

- Suggests that most knowledgeable workers should resolve equivocality 

- Computer technicians, not human resources personnel, are consulted to reduce equivocality of technical information 

Organizational rule stating that a successful plan of the past will be used to reduce current equivocality

- Suggests that we rely on successful plan from past in order to reduce equivocality of new information 

Organizational rules stating that decisions regarding equivocality should be made with the least amount of work 

- The rule guides organizations in choosing an information strategy that requires the least amount of effort to reduce equivocality 

- Act: includes communication behavior that indicates one's ambiguity 

- Response: target's reaction to the act that has the goal of reducing equivocality

- Adjustment: response to the response. Adjust my question or goal to get correct response

- Double interact loops: multiple cycles. Need to go through process multiple time in order to completely reduce equivocality

1) Enactment - Interpretation of the information received by the organization

2) Sensemaking - creating awareness and understanding in situations that are complex or uncertain 

3) Selection - Choosing the best method for obtaining information 

4) Retention - collective memory allowing people to accomplish goals

- Formality: scheduled event with seats. Speaker and audiences increase the formality

- Audience diversity: when speaker gives speech, diversity is an important consideration

- Communication role rigidity: as an audience, we're stuck in the role, same for the speaker

- Transience: live! It happens in the moment, and we can't recreate the event

An action humans perform when they use symbols for the purpose of addressing some social issues

- Intentional

- Strategic

- Not all thetoric is public address, but public communication is almost always rhetorical 

A rhetorical situation is a situatino that calls for discourse (演講). It focuses on social issues only

- Exigence: something wrong with the society (storm, hurricane, unemployment..)

- Audience: comprised people who can actually make changes 

- Constraints: can be certain traditions that make it difficult to solve the problem, limit our ability to change society 

- A problem is perceived

- Problem can be addressed through symbolic action (changes need to be possible)

- Solution requires wide mobilization of the public (solution acn't be accomplished by only one person)

- Symbolic action is taken

- Assess effects of discourse (focus on what the outcome is on both intenede/unintended goals

- Illuminate events, contests, and/or speakers (tells us about something at the moment of time)

- Understand contemporary events (to understand what's happening in the society)

- Develop and refine communication theory (develip guidlines about how to become a better communicator) 

- Effective public speakers must consider their audience

- Effective public speakers use a number of proofs in their presentations 

- The speaker-audience relationship must be acknowledged 

The perceived character, intelligence, and goodwill of a speaker

- Credibility. Portrays an impression of being trust worthy, reliable, making people feel important

Emotional proof; emotions drawn from audience members

- Emotional appeal. Giving emotional of their own experiences/stories to mak you sympthize 

Logical proof; the use of arguments and evidence in a speech

- How logical/retional your argument is

- Clarity

A set of propositions that are related to lead to a pardicular conclusion

- Probabilities: statements generally accepted being true, good acceptance

- Signes: statements that identify reasons for a face. Evidence that supports your conclusion

- Examples: illustrations for the sake of supporting a claim. Can be real or inventive 

A type of rhetoric that pertains to speakers prompting feelings of guilt or innocence from an audience (past)

- Courtroom Speaking

- Debate different attitudes or point of view. Anything that's a debate, trying to change perspective

A type of rhetoric that pertains to praising or blaming (present)

- Ceremonial Speaking

- Presenting awards, wedding, funeral...

A type of rhetoric that determines an audience's course of action (future)

- Political Speaking 

- Provide information, facilitate understanding (informational)

- Major Premise:

all men are mortal

- Minor Premise:

Aristole is a man

- Conclusion:

Therefore, Aristole is mortal

- Premise:

all men are mortal

- Conclusion:

Aristole is mortal 

A canon of thetoric that pertain to the construction or development of an argument related to a particular speech

- Coming up with an idea and get all the information you need to persuade

A canon of rhetoric that pertains to a speaker's ability to organize a speech

- What would be the most logical way to manage the information to be most persuasive 

A canon of rhetoric that includes the use of language to express ideas in a speech

- How you say it. WWhat are words that you use to describe the information, what kinds of example you use..

A canon of rhetoric that refers to a speaker's effort in storing information for a speech

- the most persuasive speaker knows what to talk about, it's all in his/her mind

A canon of rhetoric that refers to the nonverbal presentation of a speaker's ideas

- What is the tone of voice/volume, eyes contacts, gestures, vocal cues..

- Life is a drama played out through symbols (acts we perform in life reveal underline human motivation, reflection of human kinds)

- Symbolic representations (dramas) provide insight into conceptions of reality (symbolic representations professor gives about communication can be about some underline realistic examples)

- Rhetoric is an attempt to get others to share one's view of reality

- Identification is the key to accomplishing rhetorical acts

- Consubstantiation is the process of increasing identification (providing info/symbol in order to dercrese distance)

- Resolving guilt through identification and division  enhances persuasion (help reduce the guilt through identification and more persuasion)

A ranking that exists in society primarily because of our ability to use language

- Language enables us to create categories like richer and more powerful-the haves and the have-nots

Rejecting one's place in the social order; exhibiting resistance 

- Between where we are and where we want to be 

- When people see their place in the social order and seek to reject it

The way we attempt to purge the guilt we feel as part of being human

- The desire of wanting to get rid of guilt

1) Mortification - one method of purging guilt, by blaming ourselves

2) Scapegoating - one method of purging guilt, by blaming others 

A rejection of the unclean and a return to a new order after guilt has been temporarily purged 

- A key in the redemption phase is the fact that guilt is only temporarily relieved. Guilt can return to plague the human condition 

- Act: is done by a person, behaviors performed

- Scene: the context surrounding the act

- Agent: the person performing the act (speaker)

- Agency: the means used to perform the act (storytelling, apologies, speech..) 

- Purpose: the goal the agent had for the act 

When two people have overlap in their substances

- The less overlap between individuals, the greater the division (when two people fail to have overlap in their substances) that exists bewteen them 

When appeals are made to increase overlap between people 

- Humans are naturally storytellers

Decisions about a story's worth are based on "good reasons"

- Good reasons are determined by history, biography, culture, and character

- Tarionality is based on people's judgments of a story's consistency and truthfulness

- We experience the world as filled with stories, and we must choose among them

- Human are rational (理性的) beings

- Decision making is based on arguments

- Arguments adhere to specific criteria for soundness and logic

- Rationality is based in the quality of knowledge and formal reasoning processes

- The world can be reduced to a series of logical relatoinships 

- Humans are storytellers

- Decision making and communication are based on "good reasons" 

- Good reasons are determined by matters of history, biography, culture, and character

- Rationality is based in people's awareness of the story's internal consistency

- The world is experienced by people as a set of stories 

A type of coherence referring to the flow of the story

- The degree to which the elemtns of the story flow smoothly 

A type of coherence referring to the congruence between one story and other related stories 

- The degree of congruence (一致) between one story and other stories that seem related to it 

A type of coherence referring to the believability of the characters in the story 

- For instance, you may have a professor whom you dislike a great deal. This professor ridicules you and other students in the class whenever anyone contributes to class discussions. In addition, the professor makes racist, and sexist jokes in class. Your impression is that this professor is a throughly objectionable person. You would thus not believe he is a admirable person

A principle of narrative rationality judging the credibility of a story 

- The truthfulness or credibility of the narrative

- The logic of good reasons

- Good Reasons: a set of values for accepting a story as true and worthy of acceptance; provides a method for assessing fidelity 

- Impersonal - message is not targeted to any individual

Limited opportunity for feedback

- Asynchronous (非同步的)

- Passive audience - we let the messages wash off us 

- Anonymous

- Limited accountability 

- Counterfactual representations (medias aren't real)

- Availability of synthetic (虛構的) experiences 

- Dramatization of factual experience 誇大/張化

- Simplification of complex issues 把事情簡單化

- Substitution of communication for transportation: instead of watching game in the stadium, we stay home and use TV

- Media Industry: people that are interested in what's the content of media, people that have power over media

- Media Effects: what is the effect of media on consumers? What's the effect of TV messages?

Viewer -> Media Exposure -> Effects 

- Passive: unable to shield ourselves in regards to media, can't avoid media (it's everywhere) and be affeted by it

Active but sometimes weak: we can choose channels but can't control how much it's going to affect me 

- Active and strong: media allows us to choose what we want to watch and what we like to watch

- Powerful (Direct)

- Limited (Indirect)

1) Individual Differences - the way you are affected depends on who you are

2) Social Categories - whether you're young/old, rich/poor, different culture...

- Behavioral

- Attitudinal: affects the beliefs that we hold

- Cognitive: by seeing how media is realted our daily life affects our thinking 

- Psychological

Viewers - active and strong

Media Exposure - Limited/Indirect

Effects - Behavior (not everyone is going to be affected in the same way)

- People have enough self-awareness of their media use, interests, and motives to be able to provide researchers with an accurate picture of that use 

A category of gratifications coming from media use; involves escaping from routines and problems 

- Looking for distraction, something to pass time

A category of gratifications coming from media use; involving substituting media for companionship 

- Media helps us to bond and get together with friends to watch shows

Involves ways to reinforce individual values 

- Reinforce our identity, goals, and who we are 

Involves collecting needed information

- To gather information. We wouldn't know about the world if it weren't for media 

- Selective Exposure: I choose to consume media that is consistent with my existing belief

- Selective Perception: going to interpret media inconsistent with our belief

- Selective Retention: only remember media facts/things that are interesting, important, or consistent

- Media has become one of the options for individuals seeking to meet their needs

- Nothing happens to users of media that the users don't enable

Implications are short term and of little social consequence

1) Biological/Physical

2) Security/Safety

3) Social/Belonging

4) Ego/Self-respect

5) Self-actualization 

Viewers - Active and weak

Media Exposure - Powerful (everyone is affected in the same way) 

Effects - Behavioral, attitudinal, cognitive

- Society threatens deviant (不正常的) individuals with isolation 

- Fear of isolation causes individuals to try to assess the climaet of public opinion at all times (as a society, we want to know how other feel towards the news)

- Assessments of dominant public opinion guide public behavior (tend to go with the flow once I fiture out what the dominant opinion is)

- Ubiquitous (普遍存在的): the belief that media are everywhere

- Cumulative: the belief that media repeat themselves (轉到哪台都一樣的新聞)

- Consonance:: the belief that all media are similar in attitudes, beliefs, and values 

- People will only voice an opinoin if it aligns with societal views

- Majority viewpoints proliferate (激增)

- Minority viewpoints are suppressed 

Mistaken observation of how most people feel

- People mix their own direct perceptions and the perceptions filtered through thte eyes of the media into an indivisible whole that seems to derive form their own thoughts and experiences

- People seek out the media to confirm or disconfirm their observations and then interpret their own observations through the media 

 A theory that suggests the more we consume media, the more we think the world is dangerous

Viewer - Passive

Media Exposure - Powerful and Limited

Effects - Behavioral, attitudinal, cognitive 

- All TV depicts society as more violent, scary, mean, and dangerous than it really is

- TV viewers implicitly accept some things on TV as representative of their society 

- The more a person watches TV the more his/her beliefs match the TV world

- Mainstreaming

- Resonance (共鳴): when consumer's real life experiences match the images inside media

It occurs when a viewer's lived reality coincides with the reality pictured in the media 

- People's objective external reality resonates with that of television 

A method for cultivation to occur; refers to learning facts from the media

- Such as how many employed males are involved in law enforcement or what proportion of marriages end in divorce 

A method for cultivation to occur; refers to learning values and assumptions from the media

- Involve hypotheses about more eneral issues and assumptions 

- Questions like, Do you think people are basically honest? and Do you think police should be allowed to use greater force to subdue criminals?

- Most people are just looking out for themselves

- You can't be too careful in dealing with people

- Most people would take advantage of you if they got the chance 

Cultivation Analysis predicts that agreement with these statements from heavy (meaner) and light viewers will differ 

Viewer - Active and Weak

Media Exposure - Limited (depends on characteristics of people)

Effects - Physiological (things that happen to us biologically)

- Arousal is ambiguous, diffuse, and slow to decay (affects many differet physiological factors)

- Residual (剩餘的) arousal can be transferred form one context to the next

- Arousal transfer increases the emotional reaction to stimuli experienced in the next context (the arousal will be carried over)

- People enjoy media more when they've been previously aroused

- Arousing TV exposure can intensigy reactions to following experiences

- Implications are short term and typically of little social consequences 

How we know what we know is because of the media it shapes the way of knowing/valuing things

Viewer - Helpless

Media Exposure - Powerful (shapes our value and ways of knowing)

Effects - Epistemology 

- The dominant medium for communication within society corresponds with conceptions of reality (跟現實生活息息相關)

- Television has become the dominant mode of communication in our society

- Public discourse has become nonsense (很多無法解釋的現象)

- Media infuse every act and action in society

- Media fix our perceptions and organize our experiences

- Media tie the world together 

- Since the beginning of the 16th century, knowlede was transferred through print

- Effective communication required complex argument, logic, and semantic clarity

- Print media encouraged rationality and contemplation (forced to read and digest)

- Advertising or persuation required logic and rationality (because they need to be convincing)

- The advent of the telegraph and the photograph in the 1800s gave rise to context free communication 

- News became national & international, but superficial and largely irrelevant

- Knowledge became about knowning a lot of things, but not very much about them (internet = skim through)

- Advertising & persuasion changed to seeing in believing 

- TV requires minimal skills to comprehend and discourages reflection

- TV emphasizes emotional gratification and discourages thinking (commercials)

- TV provides gragmented and discontinuous information

- Advertising or persuasion is based on the attractiveness of entertainment value of the messenger and the message 

- Each communication medium has fixed and inherent properties, regardless of who is using it (different goal to accomplish)

- Media choice is rational and thus predictable (if I need support, a phone call would be predicted to be used)

- Face-to-Face: the ideal communication channel (has the most channel for feedback)

Richness of a medium based on four criteria:

- It's ability to give immediate feedback (I can see and hear)

- It's ability to transmit multiple cues

- It's ability to support the use of natural or conversational language

- It's personalized nature (I can see response immediately and change the way I communicate)

(The lower the richer)

- Numeric documents

- Personal written documents 

- E-mail

- Text messaging

- Instand messaging

- Landline phone

- Video conference

- Mobile phone

- Face-to-Face

- A good match between media richness and task (we need to beaware of our goals and select the most appropriate media to use)

- Select a rich medium for ambiguous tasks, like strategic decision maknig or resolving a conflict with a partner

- Choose a lean medium for unambiguou/sample or explicit tasks, like exchanging documents 

·      Culture is a complex, abstract, and pervasive matrix of socially developed assumptions that provide a framework for living, thinking, and behaving

o   Complex – coming from many different sources/places (can have few different identities)

o   Abstract – when we are asked to make a list, it is challenging have everything on top of our head so we don’t think about it all the time

o   Pervasive – it’s there, even if we don’t think about it all the time

o   Socially developed – you are born with particular ethnicity, but what you mean to the group is socially constructed. 

 Communication between members of distinct social groups

§  Broad/big cultural identifications (national identity, religion, gender…). They don’t necessarily interact with other categories, you can only fit ONE category

§  Group with regular contact that develop with similar norms or identities (Rutgers culture is one of them because you can also take some classes in other universities). You can belong to more than one speech community at the same time, any group that interact with norm

o   You may be born in United States, but you don’t know the history of the country right when you’re born. Therefore, we learn about what the country is about

o   It’s teachable (I can socialize someone to be a better representative of their culture). We pass it on and we teach them what it means to be in certain cultures

o   Culture changes over time. Changes through two processes: invention (come up with new practices to shape/define the culture. After 911, there are many new rules or definitions) and diffusing (when we borrow practices from a different culture. When we went to Iraq, we suggested them having democratic government) 

o   In some cases, we have selected solutions arbitrarily  to solve particular problems, and those solutions become selective and meaningful 

o   Certain cultural behaviors are related to others. Christmas is a cultural event whether you celebrate or not, and new years eve 

Nature of Culture - Ethnocentric

o   We see our own culture as a standard for evaluating other cultures. Usually we see our own culture as best because it makes sense to you and that what you grew up with

·      Myths or Narratives

 Stories of significant that celebrate certain values (thanksgiving). Myths and narratives help us to pass on culture to celebrate the significant value

·      Social Dramas

 Problems and concerns that are prominent in society (discrimination, politics…) The way that those events (hurricane) that get framed into discourse says a lot of our cultural values 

·      Totemizing Rituals

Things we do to elevate an event to cultural significant through some kind of culture. The ritual is what defines the events/values of the culture (after 911, we have memorial event every year on that day to elevate the significance)

 ·      Cultural identities vary in salience

 ·  Different facets of cultural identities can be salient at different times (when you’re a minority that is not in the mainstream or doesn’t fit the mainstream, it becomes very salient)

 · Communication is intercultural when people interact based on group identity rather than individual identity (Rutgers students take classes at Penn State) 

o   The image of the self that people display in their conversations with others (we want to make good impressions while having conversation with others)

o   Metaphor for the boundaries people have in their relationships 

o Positive Face - Dessire to be liked and admired by others (need compliments)

o   Negative Face - Desire to be autonomous and unconstrained (don’t like to be boss around, independent) 

Interest in maintaining one's face or the face of others

- There is a self-concern and an other-concern

- Face concern answers the question, ' Do I want attention drawn toward myself or toward another?"

Desire to be associated or disassociated with others

- "Do I want to be associated with others (inclusion) or do I want dissociation (autonomy)?"

Facework - Tact Facework

Refers to the actions taken to deal with the face needs to self and others

o   Extend to which we respect the other person’s autonomy, try not imposing other people

§  Making request in a way that’s tactful, start request by saying “I hate to bother you, but…” 

§  Accepting another person as a member of your in-group

§  Tend to emphasize things in common and things that are different

§  Through pledging, you learn the symbols/history of the organizations and make you feel like you belong to it

§  We focus less on negative aspect of a person, and more on positive aspect

§  Minimize the blame we put on other people, but maximize the praise 

·      Certain acts threaten one’s projected self-image

·      Face threatening acts are attacks on our positive or negative face needs 

Dealing with Face Threatening Acts

Face Saving 

o   Efforts to prevent events that impair one’s self image or create embarrassment

- Efforts to avoid embarrassment or vulnerability 

Dealing with Face Threatening Acts

o   Efforts to repair face after it has already been damaged

o   If I have done something embarrassing, I might do something by apologizing for what I’ve done to solve the problems

- Strategy used to preserve autonomy and avoid loss of face 

A cultural value that places emphasis on the individual over the group (America)

- Refers to the tendency of people to highlight individual identity over group identity, individual rihts over group rights, and individual needs over group needs 

- "I" identity

A cultural value that places emphasis on the group over the individual

- Emphasis of group goals over individual goals, group obligations over individual rights, and in-group needs over individual wants

- "We" identity

·      Similarities and dissimilarities in speech and behavior exist in all conversations

·      The manner in which we perceive another’s speech and behavior will determine how we evaluate a conversation

·      Language and behaviors impart information about social status and group belonging

·      Accommodation varies in its degree of appropriateness and norms guide the accommodation process

·      B: “Man, that sucks! Don’t let her tell you what to do! You do what you want.” 

Strategy used to accentuate the verbal and nonverbal differences between communicators

·      A: “it pisses me off that my gf won’t let me go to the bachelor party. I ain’t gonna take it, man!”

·      “Gee, what a troubling situation. Perhaps you should discuss this with her in an effort to understand her perspective.”

Attempting to overdo efforts in regulating, modifying, or responding to others

·      A: “it pisses me off that my gf won’t let me go to the bachelor party. I ain’t gonna take it, man!”

·      “Yo, man, that’s totally whack! You should be pissed off, brother! She’s totally got you whipped!”

Occurs when speakers place listeners in a lower-status role

- The listener also believes that the speaker controls the conversation to desmonstrate higher status

- Can be seen by examining the treatment of a number of immigrant populations in the United States

Occurs when speakers place listeners in cultural groups without acknowledging individual uniqueness 

- Failing to treat each person as an individual

- Mexican Americans have never been given a chance to succeed in the US because they have been busy raising their faimilies

·      Females are more self disclosive

o   Females tend to self disclose more than males

o   Females tend to use self disclosure to build closeness (more socialized, share secrets…)

·      Men typically do things together

o   Build relationship by doing things (sports, games…)

·      Females see relationships in terms of (dis)affiliation

o   Women tend to worry more about affiliation frame while men worry about domination frame

·      Males see relationships as negotiating dominance and submissiveness 

·      Females tell people when they feel stress

o   Women just want to talk, not seeking for solutions

·      Males tend not to disclose personal stressors

o   If men cannot find solutions or results, then they might ask for advice. They are looking for solutions

·      Females hint, avoid trivial issues, save confrontation for important issues and when hinting has failed

o   Women tend to avoid issues that are so small (doing dishes) 

·      Females tend to enjoy conflicts more than males

·      Males confront immediately, avoid big stuff

·      Males become overly aroused by the conflict process

o   They do not want to little things get to the bad points 

·      Women tend to perceive the world differently than men

·      Division of labor leads women to different experiences and makes them responsible for different activities

·      Male dominated society suppresses the free expression of women’s alternative world view

·      Women must transform their own models to fit with the accepted male system of expression

Masculine Norms of Communication in the Workplace

·      Managers are expected to be assertive, to use dominance to influence decisions, and to talk about their own strengths

·      In group decision making contexts, men are motivated by self interest and prefer a competitive solution

·      Messages with sexual or romantic content are rated as more accepted and less harassing by men compared to women

·   The way that women talk tend to be bitchy, annoying, naggy 

o   Women are also told not funny, no humorous 

o   The reason why father walks the daughter into wedding is because women are objects and father is giving it away

o   99% of the time women take husbands’ names

o   Men tend to talk more than women, interrupt than women, and try controlling the conversation

o   Women need to deal with being harassed more than men