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| A way of thinking and talking about theories. |
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The nature of reality and what humans are like.
I.E. is "reality" external or internal to the observer? |
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What we know and how we knot it
I.E. is knowledge only that which can be put into words (explicit)? |
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The role of values in our research
I.E. should research be value-free or value driven? |
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| Ways of seeing the social and natural world |
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| Objective-subjective dimension |
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| This dimensions deals witht he differences in ontological and epistemological views. Theories might be more or less "objective" or "subjective" |
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| Social-change/Status quo dimension |
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| deals with axiology. Theories might promote alue-neutrality or value-driven theories (or somewhere in between) Value-driven theories often focus on IDEOLOGY AND HEGEMONY |
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| the world IS; humans merely exist in it. |
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| reality and meaning lie within the individual, but are affected by the culture in which they were created. Often called INTERPRETIVE OR HUMANISTIC |
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| Things in this world exist because humans have given them names - |
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| People make decisions based on free will |
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| Study of people's perceptions of phenomena, assuming that perceptions are different from person to person |
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| A range of theories that address social power and power inequalities in society by looking at orgnizations, relationships, politics, texts, and social norms. (MARXISM) |
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| The predominant influence, as of a state, region, or group, over another or others |
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| Stock sets of (sexist, racist, etc.) ideas and assumptions about the world |
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| is similar to "scientific," though is more "postpostivistic," focusing on PROBABILITY rather than certainty of human behavior |
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is similar to humanistic, seeking to uncover how people act, rather than
"why" in a causal fashion. It sees behavior as teleological, or goal driven |
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| sees behavior and people as interrelated and striving for balance |
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| seek to EXPLAIN, PREDICT, and in some cases CONTROL the communication world |
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| seek to provide interpretation and deep understanding of communication |
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| seek to uncover any problems in the ideology and meaning processes of social behavior (sex, race, class-based power) |
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| The process of creating intentional and unintentional meaning. |
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-Communication research - Classical Greece
-Earliest modern focus was rhetoric, starting in the 1890's in English Departments |
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| It is strategic in that we often construct messages with particular goals or motives. |
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| Consequential communication |
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| It is consequential in that it often has impacts that are not anticipated. |
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| Early 1900s - Media effects research began with the work of Harold Lasswell and Paul Lazarsfeld |
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| Social Psychology (Media and Culture) |
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- Chicago School - began a symbolic interactionist appraoch that looked at the communicative creation of meaning (late 1890's-early 1900s)
-Focus on "PRAGMATISM", an attempt to find workable solutions to real social problems |
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| Consequences can be perceptual, behavioral, or relational |
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Perceptual - include all assumptions we make about pepole's competence, attitudes, disposition, education, social class, etc. plus their assumptions about us.
Behavioral - occurs when people change their behavior without any particular effort from others to influence that change.
Relational - in the sense that they create and sustain interaction patterns and expectations within personal, social, and professional relationships. |
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| People in their daily lives rely on untested explanations of reality |
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| Marxism (Social and economic theory) |
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- Those who control a society also control the production (material conditions)
- Frankfurt school (1950) - power, oppression, psychology
- Critical of domination - Critical Theory
- Marxism had its strongest influence in media studies
-Textual Criticism, Cultural Studies |
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| Theory is a description of concepts and specification of the relationships between or among these concepts. |
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| words, images, gestures, drawsings, sounds |
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| A concept in some characteristic or quality shared by the elements in some category. |
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| The reality with which the thought is associated |
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| Propositions refer to statements of relationship between concepts. |
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| "Meaning is in people, not in words" |
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| I don't know why this is important, but it makes sense! |
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Mechanical carrier of messages
- MEDIA is plural for MEDIUMS |
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1) organize info - take complex phenomenon and put into words or categories that can be easily understood.
2) describe phenomena - describes WHAT happens in a given situation, or context-providing understanding.
3) Explain how comm. processes and practices work - helps to explain WHY things happen, often in the sense of the underlying causes of human behavior (scientific theory).
4) Predict future occurrences - helps to predict outcomes (scientific).
5) Control future outcomes by using theory - used to control events or outcomes when relationships among variables have been established (scientific). |
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| Inductive theorists try to avoid letting pre-existing concepts determine what they look for; often develop frameworks or categories called typologies. |
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Shannon & Weaver (1949)
- Like a telegraph message
Schramm's Model (1954)
- Interpersonal Communication Model
Hall's Circuit of Culture (1997)
- It's a circuit! |
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| Deductive theorists start with preformulated expectations about how a process works; theory building relies on predetermined concepts, often hypotheses. |
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The art of discovering all available means of persuasion
- Refers to PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION |
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| Citizens who addressed the court on behalf of others and increased restrictions on public address |
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| 5 signifiers of a "Good Theory" |
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1) utility - refers to whether a theory is useful, or helps improve scholarship or the everyday production and consumption of messages. This includes its ability to predict phenomena.
2) scope - is the focus of the theory.
3) parsimony - refers to the level of simplicity with which a theory is presented.
4) heurism - refers to whether a theory stimulates new ways of thinking about an issue.
5) falsifiability - is whether the concepts of a theory can be measured and the relationships tested. |
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Sophists
- Travelling rhetoric teachers
- LOGOGRAPHERS: speech writers
Plato
- founded the Academy (school)
*Aristotle
- founded the Lyceum (school)
- Wrote the classic text The Rhetoric |
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Cicero
- was a pleader
- stressed eloquence and pragmatism in speech
Qunintillain |
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| Conscious decision making |
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| Objects, persons, or events that have something in common. |
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| A claim or conclusion supported by reasons to believe it (proof or pisteis) |
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| Special concepts created by scientists to help them explain human behavior. |
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| Something that was not created by the speaker |
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characters and credibility of the speaker
- Competence
- Moral Character
- Goodwill |
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| Emotional appeals by the speaker |
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The discovery of the appropriate ideas or content for a persuasive message (topoi)
- Deliberative: policies of state; deliberate
- Forensic: courtroom speeches; guilt or innocence
- Epideictic: special occasion; praise or blame |
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| The organization of a speech |
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| What is the purpose of descriptive/sensitizing schemes? |
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| They are designed to sensitize and orient researchers to certain features of a process or context rather than to explain, predict, and control. |
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The use of language as a powerful persuasive technique
- E.g., Metaphor, simile, antithesis |
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| Memorization of key points of a speech for both audience and speaker |
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| Is Rhetoric subjective or objective theory |
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| What are operational definitions? |
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| These are statements of how a construct will be measured. |
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| Variables are concepts constructs that have more than one value. |
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| Causal and Correlational relationships |
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1) causal - directly related
2) correlation - related variables |
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| How do we build deductive theory? |
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Deductive theory-building uses a theory to develop statements for investigation.
Hypotheses->Observation->Generalization |
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| How do we build inductive theory? |
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Inductive theory - uses research questions rather than hypotheses to guide inquirey.
Grounded theory - a set of relationships between ideas that are developed through people's lived experience rather than from prior theory and measurement.
Generalization->Observation->Hypotheses |
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Quantitative Research
Life is black and white - Universal truth exists. |
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Measurement - the process of assigning numbers to objects, events, and phenomena (statistics).
Statistical significance - phenomena has low probability of occurring by chance.
Some methods are surveys, experiments, content analysis. |
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Qualitative Research
No Universal truth exists! Life is not black and white. |
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Different views of validity and reliability.
-Triangulation - the use of several research methods to overcome the flaws of the method and to assure validity/reliability.
Methods - focus group, individual interview, ethnography (participant observation), textual analysis.
Qualitative research is sometimes influenced by a critical or postmodernism focus. |
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| Societies and their communication practices change through dialectical process - where each influences the other in a constant tension |
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| General summary of Ch. 1-3 |
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*Scientific
- quantitative (objective)
- experiments, surveys, and content analysis
*Humanistic
- qualitative (subjective)
- ethnography and textual analysis
*Critical/Social Justice Theory
- quantitative and qualitative
- focus on power relations and social change. |
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Theories assumptions about the associations between or among concepts. These associations are expressed as types of propositions, which like concepts are SPECULATIONS OFFERED BY SCHOLARS
-temporal relationship: certain concepts precede other concepts in time
-correlational association: two or more concepts tend to co-occur or change together in patterned ways.
-causal propositions: one concept precedes another concept, that the concepts are related, and that the first concept causes or motivates the second. |
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