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| One-to-many form of communication where a single speaker addresses a large audience; clear organization, careful preplanning, formal language style |
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| Characteristics of Public Communication |
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| Formal, pre-planned messages, more rigidly defined communication roles; prompted by an important event or issue, public messages constructed with more care than interpersonal messages; messages must make sense to large audiences, audience adaption is central challenge, time important variable, speakers must make an immediate impact, use simple structures easy to follow, employ transitions and repeated summaries; physically distanced from the audience, speak loudly and clearly, use gestures and visual aids; takes place in public sphere- wider focus, issues and topics focused outward, toward a community of individuals with shared interests |
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| The art of designing public messages that can change the way in which audiences think and feel about public issues |
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| Communicate only with our own interests in mind |
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| Communicate as members of a larger community; our topic is of concern to many; Ex. Magic Johnson goes public about HIV |
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| What you're actually saying; discover facts about our wolds (speakers research topics), test ideas (TESTS!.. nooo), learn to persuade others (lawyers prepare cases), shape knowledge (accept facts and ideas as true), build community (classroom), distribute power (shape way others think, gives us a voice) |
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| Physical Settings, Medium transmission, Nature of Occasion, Historical and cultural setting |
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| Rhetorical context, Can have big impact on the way message is constructed and delivered because audience expectations are tied to settings; Ex. style and delivery of open air speech to thousands is different from speech given in classroom even when purpose is similar; vocal tone and language choices change |
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| Rhetorical context, Speech designed for TV different from personal delivery because conditions for reception are different; TV- distanced from speaker, "nosier" environment; Face-to-face: less freedom to move around/multitask |
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| Nature of Occasion That Prompted Speech |
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| Rhetorical Context, Address not matching occasion cannot achieve purpose; Ex. Speech at celebrity party is different than State of the Union address or funeral; all factors making up speech- purpose, organization, language style depend on nature of occasion |
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| Every speech is given at a particular time in history, events that surround speech affect its reception |
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| Bitzer; Consists of three parts: exigence, audience, and constraints |
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| Importance of Context in Rhetorical Situations |
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| Bitzer; Of all the factors affecting public communication, situation is the most important because it prompts a speaker to act and shapes the nature of their message |
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| Problem that motivates all aspects of rhetoric; speakers speak because they feel something is wrong and hope speaking out will make it right |
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| Speakers address audience who can change the problem by altering their beliefs and attitudes or by taking direct action |
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| Factors that control and shape the nature of the communication; affects the way speakers respond to audience; medium of transmission, history, beliefs, values, credibility, argumentative skill are all constraints |
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| Speakers who show that they are knowledgable about a topic, Increases credibility and enables the speaker to influence/educate the audience members |
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| Speakers who indicate a concern for audience interests, Increases credibility and enables the speaker to influence/educate the audience members |
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| McGuire; when an individual is perceived to be believable and trustworthy, once speech begins it can rise or fall; speaker without titles/credentials can increase by delivering a good speech |
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| Ad hominem, slippery slope, false dilemma, straw man, non sequitur, glittering generality, transfer, plain folks, bandwagon, ad populum |
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| Speaker attacks someone's character not relevant to issue; Ex. Accusing Tiger Woods for cheating on his wife, has nothing to do with golf |
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| Speaker predicts that taking a given line of action will inevitably lead to undesirable effects, predictions play on our fears; Ex. Use condoms or else you'll end up with a screaming child |
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| Speaker sets up an either-or situation, ignoring other possibilities; Ex. You either go with me or against me |
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| Speaker characterizes an opponent's view in simplistic terms then demolishes it |
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| Speaker uses connectives (therefore, so, hence) to make two unrelated ideas seem logically connected; Ex. It's been used for years; therefore, it must be good |
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| Speaker associates self/issue with a vague virtue word, sounds good but what does it mean?; Ex. I believe in the American dream, they believe in the American nightmare |
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| Speaker links own ideas with popular people/issues and links opponent's ideas with unpopular people/issues; Presidential candidates may portray themselves as following in path of Washington/Lincoln |
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| Speaker attributes an idea to a member of the audience's own group rather than to self |
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| Speaker makes it appear that anyone who doesn't agree will be left out/will fall behind; Ex. 100 people have already done it |
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| Speaker appeals to popular prejudices, what is the popular belief; Ex. "Unless we act now, Japan will own everything we value" relies on fear and ethnic prejudice rather than realistic threat |
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| Evaluative mental structures that predispose us to act in certain ways; products of beliefs, emotions, desires; Ex. Studying is a waste of time; can affect how we think, feel, and behave |
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| Everything we know or choose to believe about a given topic; its causes, effects, and solutions |
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| Emotional reactions to the attitude; Ex. Fear, pity, understanding; motivates us to take action |
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| What we think should be done about the attitude object; Ex. Whether we intend to ignore homeless or take action |
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| Opinions that individuals hold about the world and about their place in it; differ in nature and importance |
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| Rokeach; relatively inconsequential and easy to change; matters of taste and simple, unemotional facts (if someone can be trusted) |
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| Beliefs about whether the world is round or flat and about one's self-worth; basic long-term beliefs that cannot be changed without disrupting our entire belief structure; more difficult to change, defend against attack |
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| Audience wants evidence to support claims; statistics, illustrative examples, research results, expert testimony, eyewitness accounts |
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| What the speaker wishes the audience to accept; argument succeeds if the audience accepts the claim and fails if the audience rejects the claim; facts, values, policies (cig advertising should be banned) |
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| Indicates the strength of the claim; modifiers (always, sometimes, probably, nine out of ten times) are qualifiers that indicate the strength of the claim; unqualified claims indicate speaker is overstating the case |
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| Connecting link between data and claim; decides if argument lives or dies, hidden part of argument |
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| Additional evidence; not needed when a warrant is well understood and acceptable, |
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| (Reservation); A statement of the conditions where the claim does not hold true, if audience favors warrant, rebuttal may be omitted; strengthen the argument |
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| Brockreide and Ehninger- three ways of appealing to an audience; arguments based on authoritative, motivational, or substantive appeals |
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| Depends on authority of a source, some sources automatically trusted; Ex. Surgeon believes drug is dangerous and shouldn't be sold; When parents tell their children to do something "because I said so" |
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| Based on emotional needs of the audience; speaker uses highly emotional appeal or urges audience members to accept a claim because it will satisfy a personal desire/need; Ex. Believing speaker/audience shares common feelings of pity so talks about slaughter of animals |
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| Connects data and claim through logic and reasoning; speaker shows audience member that claim is the only rational conclusion, given the data |
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| Common in public context; Speaker tries to establish why something happened |
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| Seeks to predict one condition (X) by pointing to another condition (Y) associated with it; Ex. Smoke is sign of fire but not the cause, most people would accept the claim "this building is on fire" on the strength of the data and "the hall is full of smoke" |
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| Arguments from Generalization |
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| Seek to establish a general conclusion on the basis of data taken from a small sample of cases; Stereo types and prejudices |
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