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| (1949) Wrote book about future world vanishing freedom of thought, Gov. controls people through "Newspeak" (language), gets rid of words against party principle; We think through language, understood connection between language, humanity, and thought |
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| Language often experienced as the source of human life and power |
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| most common; spoken language, link between language and it's expression in speech |
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| Computer language, electrical signals, sign language |
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| Rule-governed symbols system allowing its users to generate meaning and define reality |
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| Four Important Characteristics of Language |
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| Made up of symbols, it's a kind of knowledge, it's rule governed and productive, it affects the way we experience the world |
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| Signs, signifier, signified, Ferdinand de Saussure, symbols |
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| Allows people to express ideas that originate in their minds; two parts- signifier and signified; connects content and form, any mode of expression that connects idea (signified) to form (signifier) |
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| Form in which idea is expressed (Smoke) |
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| Private idea in the mind of the communicator |
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| Compared sign to sheet of paper; front- signifier, back- signified; creating word- cutting shape out of paper (conceptual/representational) |
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| Sign Relationship (two types of signs) |
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Natural signs- doesn't depend on human intervention (smoke- fire)
Signs produced by humans- "dog" is a sound sequence representing domesticated canines, "dog" is special kind of sign, it's a symbol |
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| Different from other signs because its arbitrary and conventional |
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| (Dog)- No natural connection between idea of dog and the signifier "dog", it is based on random choice and done on whim |
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| Meaning depends on social agreement (Dog) |
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| It is mental, can never be examined directly- must be inferred from speech; As we grow we figure out rules of language |
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| external, physical side of language and language is internal, mental side of speech |
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| Language is Rule Governed and Productive |
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| As you learn language, you learn rules that allow us to generate meaning |
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| Ability to understand and create unusual sentences; Shows us language learning is more than just trial and error |
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| Language Affects the Way We Experience the World |
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| (1930s) Flashed 12 figures that were labeled, reproduce figures as accurately as possible, results showed the subjects distorted figures to better fit the verbal label |
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| Verbal Memory is a two edged sword; it enables us to store/retrieve information but in the process we can also distort amount of perception |
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| Nature of our language affects the nature of our thought; made up of two parts- Linguistic determinism and Linguistic Relativity (shows connection between language and thought) |
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| Theory that language determines thought |
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| People from different language communities perceive the world differently; language gives idea what's important to different language speakers |
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| Studied ways that defense intellectuals discuss nuclear strategy; policy makers use specialized language to talk about life and death, language changes to meet needs/express values of its users |
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| (Carol Cohn) inoffensive words used instead of highly charged terms; allow us to avoid talking about painful situations, act as blinders |
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| Subsystem of Language (1) |
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| Study of significant sound patterns of language, some sounds important and some not |
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| Significant sound distinctions in a given language; pitch, intonation, word stress in acceptable ways |
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| Subsystem of Language (2) |
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| Words of Language, To know a language you need to know the rules of word formation |
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| Study of the structure of the units of meaning in a language; memorize words that make up a language, hear a sound sequence and assign it meaning (gain knowledge) |
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| Smallest unit of meaning in a language |
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| Must always be attached to other morphemes (having the quality of...) |
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| List of all the words of a language |
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| Subsystem of Language (3) |
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| Study of sentence structure of a language |
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| Enables us to sequence words appropriately and determine meaning based on word order, contains info about grammatical functions of words (if word is n, v, where fits in sentence), rules for generating new sentences, rules for transforming base sentences into different forms |
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| Subsystem of Language (4) |
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| Study of how we use language in social contexts, allow us to understand intentions of others/make our own intentions clear |
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| Goal a speaker intends to accomplish through speech |
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Understanding relationship between words and sentences and the speech acts they represent
Ex. Do you have a watch: different context provides us with info we need to understand speech act, tells us who communicative partners are, gives clues about assumptions/expectations of us |
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| Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory- provides framework for understanding how individuals use context to assign pragmatic meaning; in order to communicate successfully, must take into account 4 levels of context |
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| Episode, Relationship, Life Script, Cultural Pattern |
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| Role obligations that we feel towards one another |
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| Professional/personal identity |
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| Cultural norms we share with others |
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| Basic unit of pragmatics; unit of language is larger than a single sentence; consists of connected sentences that form an identifiable structure to fulfill a communicative function |
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| Cultural norms we share with others |
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| Professional/personal identity |
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| Cultural norms we share with others |
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| Basic unit of pragmatics; Unit of language larger than a single sentence; Consists of connected sentences that form an identifiable structure to fulfill a communicative function |
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| Most common mode of spoken communication, allows us to create/maintain relationships, explore/develop personal identities, accomplish daily tasks; private/personal, reciprocal, take cues from one another; characterized by hesitations, restatements, fillers, implicit private codes, relational |
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| informal social interaction where roles of speaker/hearer are enhanced in a nonautomatic fashion under collaborative management of everyone involved |
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| Defining characteristic of conversation; distribution of power, interaction is non-recipricol, syntax/vocab is formal, topics- impersonal, contains more jargon than private talk, teacher talk- scripted, explicit |
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| Described most basic/simple of conventions that guide talk- must be willing to cooperate with one wnother by speaking in socially approved ways, in order to cooperate must follow 4 conversational maxims (rules) |
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| Four Conversational Maxims (Rules) |
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| Quantity, Quality, Relevancy, Manner |
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| Male sure their contributions contain enough (not too much) information |
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| Speakers must be truthful |
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| Speakers make sure their contributions are direct and pertinent |
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| They should be direct and Clear |
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| signal interaction is winding down, establish sense of disclosure, reassure participants that the interaction has been successful, establish conditions for future interaction |
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| Good Conversation Endings |
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| A statement of upcoming commitments, comment on the interaction, statement of concern/goodwill, brief summary of conversation, mention of future contact |
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Misunderstanding in common between genders occur because men and women grow up in different cultures and have different expectations about how to use language
Women- stresses intimacy and connection
Men- Value autonomy and individual achievement
Affect men and women's topics of conversation, conversation styles, interpretations of one another's meanings |
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Asked people to interpret why a newborn is crying
If told: Boy- first act of communication is anger, Girl- she was afraid |
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| Boys respond to boys reports of problem by dismissing/downplaying or giving straightforward advice on how to solve it; girls respond with trouble talk of their own |
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| Storytelling/Trouble Talk |
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| Males ignore failures and focus on achievement; Females exorcise social failures by talking about them |
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| Focus on relational meaning; most appropriate for interpersonal topics, feels most natural in intimate contexts |
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| Focuses on content; as a style- appropriate in public situation when decision making/opinion exchange is expected |
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| Investigate relationship between gender and language; avoid language that denigrates, disrespects, and makes women invisible |
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| No agreement on exact nature of different ways men and women use language, no consensus about their theoretical explanation |
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| (Deborah Cameron) When behavior is cited, discussed, and popularized overtime, originally modest claims have been represented as more and more absolute while hypotheses have been given the status of facts |
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| Although there are many statistically significant differences between male/female communication styles, they are quite small; gender accounts for only small proportion of subject behavior |
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| Use tag questions (right, okay), qualifiers (maybe, perhaps), and disclaimers (dont get me wrong but) and are criticized for being passive/powerless |
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| Performative Aspects of Language |
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| helps avoid mistake of viewing male/female differences as essential; differences can be explained as social performances not innate characteristics |
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| Candance West/Don Zimmerman |
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| Person's gender is not simply aspect of what one is, but something that one does recurrently in interaction with other |
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| Behavior not reflection of individual nature (identity), but some performance individual is accomplishing (display) |
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| Cultures that find meaning in words not shared context in which communication occurs; speaker assumes listener doesnt know much about the situation- must be told everything explicitly; English speaking countries |
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| Dont think it's necessary to spell out mess explicitly; dont say what they believe listener already knows; where/how something is said is as important as what is said (eye contact, voice tone)- Japan, China |
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| Verbal Directness (Low Context Cultures) |
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| Get to the point quickly and say what they mean |
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| Verbal Indirectness (High Context Cultures)/ How to Get Meaning Across |
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| Prefer to discuss matters in more subtle and roundabout ways, Refraction- let someone overhear; Covert Revelation- out in a disguised way, Mediation- Waiting for someone else to relay message |
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| Open to displaying emotion (hug, touch, laugh, cry) |
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| Protocol is important; difference shown to superiors, messages flow through proper channels, in cultures with distinct power heiarchy |
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| Protocol is important; difference shown to superiors, messages flow through proper channels, in cultures with distinct power heiarchy |
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| Reduce hierarchy, treat individuals as equals (US/Australia) |
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| Not making sense effects making sense; Sometimes helps- not hinders- communication |
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| Organizational Communication; Discusses positive effects of using ambiguous language (language interpreted in more than one way) |
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