Ch.1 

What are the five (5) most common everyday ways of knowing? 

1. Personal experience/observation

       2. intuition/logic

       3. authority

       4. appeals to tradition, custom, and faith

       5. magic, superstition, and mysticism

CH. 1

 How do we define “everyday ways of knowing”? 

epistemology

CH. 1

How does personal experience not always serve us well?

Lack of generalization [individual conclusions]

Biased perceptions [affects our opinions]

            Reality            [little of what we know is from experience]

CH. 1

What is intuition?  

Believing something because it “makes sense”/ gut feeling

CH. 1

Why is intuitive reasoning often wrong?

Ignores statistical probability [likelihood of occurrence]

            See what we want to see [confirmatory bias]

CH.1 

Why do common, everyday intuitive thinking often result in mistaken perceptions and judgments?  

Because common sense is not so “common”, it is selective sense.

CH.1

What is cognitive conservatism?  

Hold conclusions even in the face of contradictory info

CH.1

What is authority?  

Belief because of trust in person who said it [expert opinion]

   -source credibility is often more important 

than what is being said

CH.1

What do appeals to tradition and customs involve?  

Belief because most people in a society assume it is true & has always been a certain ways

    Ex.) men do not shave underarms

CH.1

How have customs led to cognitive conservatism?

Yes, tradition stifles inquiry process and knowledge growth

CH.1 

How is magic, superstition, and mysticism an “everyday way of knowing”? 

using the word ‘mystery’ to explain an otherwise unexplained event

   ex.) making a quarter disappear

CH. 1

Is there an easy explanation for many of these “so-called mysteries”?  

scientific explanations exist

CH. 1

What is research? 

Process by which we answer questions and try to draw conclusions from info

      Gathered about message-related behavior

CH. 1

What are two (2) different types of research?  

• proprietary research: conducted for a specific audience and is not necessarily shared beyond that audience
• scholarly research: conducted to promote public access to knowledge (ex. published studies)

CH. 1

What are the six (6) main characteristics of research? 

1. based on curiosity and asking questions
2. systematic process
3. potentially replicable
4. reflexive and self-critical
5. cumulative and self-correcting
6. cyclical

CH.1

What are the five (5) phases of the working model of communication research? 

Phase 1: conceptualization

Phase 2: planning and designing research

Phase 3: methodologies for conducting research

Phase 4: analyzing and interpreting date

Phase 5: reconceptualizing communication research

CH.1

How are the positivist and naturalist paradigms different? (6)

CH.1

positivist & naturalist paradigms (cont')

CH. 2

What is basic research?  

research designed to test and refine theory 

CH. 2

What is applied research? 

research designed to solve a practical problem 

CH. 2

What are the unique characteristics of scientific inquiry? (4)

1.       scientific inquiry differs from everyday thinking

            -scientific research is published in journals

1.     science is “objective”

·       try to remover our own personal biases

·       not true objectivity- cannot remove yourself entirely

·       explicit rules, standards, and procedures

2.     science is empirical

·       conscious, deliberate observations [many to avoid overgeneralization]

3.     science is systematic and cumulative

·       new knowledge adds to or modifies old

·       science has to be constantly open to change

CH. 2

What is the “Wheel of Science”? 

[SEE LECTURE NOTES]

CH. 2

What is involved in deduction?  Be able to indicate where deduction starts in the wheel 

theory, hypothesis, observation 

Ch. 2

What is involved in induction?  Be able to indicate where induction starts in the wheel and ends

observation, empirical, theory 

CH. 2

Besides the differences in methodological approaches, what are the similarities (i.e., commonalities)?

1. raise knowledge of comm. Practice

      2. promote generation of theory [not generalize]

      3. use of any method is discursive in nature [proceed by reason not intuition]

CH. 2

What are Quantitative Methods?  

Systematic observation of hypothesized connections [numbers]

CH.2

What are the three (3) main types of quantitative research methods?

content analysis

surveys

experiments

CH. 2

What are some ways researchers pick a topic for investigation?  Be able to list. (5)

1. study state of scientific discipline (follow-up unanswered questions)
2. social problems [chronic issues]
3. social premiums [hot topics get funding]
4. personal experience [group memberships, daily observations]
5. practical considerations [space, time, or money]

CH.2

What is a theory?  

A systematic explanation for observations about a particular aspect of social life

   “explanation for how the world works”

CH.2

What are the 6 ways that a theory can be evaluated?

·       Theoretical Scope: explanatory power is limited by its boundary

·       Validity: a theory must be internally valid, or consistent, being free from contradiction.

·       Parsimony: a theory should be as simple as possible

·       Prediction: a theory should foretell what will happen before it does happen

·       Control: to the extent that a theory explains and predicts something, some measure of control can be gained.

·       Heuristic: a theory should generate scholarly research.

CH.2

What is meant by falsifiability?  Be able to explain.

Scientific theories need to be testable [ability to be proven wrong]

CH.2

The best (research) topics have the potential to do what? (2)

1. extend theory
2. help solve important social problems

CH.2 

What are the two (2) goals questions and/or statements are designed to accomplish in research articles?

1. to describe communication behavior

2. to relate communication behavior to other variables

CH. 2

What is a research question? 

Question about relationship between variables

CH. 2

What is a variable?  

Any concept that can have two or more values

  -attempt to categorize a concept =               measure it

            ex.) Honda: accord, civic, prelude

CH. 2

What is an independent variable?

variable that influences changes in another variable

[ input variable]

CH. 2

What is a dependent variable?  

Variable that is changed by another variable

   [outcome variable]

CH.2

What is a causal relationship?

Expect changes in independent variable cause observed changes in the dependent variable.

[casualty is very difficult to establish]

CH. 2

What is a non-causal relationship?

Variables are associated, or occur together, without one necessarily causing changes in the other

CH. 2

What is a hypothesis? 

A testable statement about the relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable. 

CH. 2

What is a two-tailed (non-directional) hypothesis?  

Does not predict direction of relationship

Ex.) A & B related

CH.2

What is a one-tailed (directional) hypothesis?

Predict direction of relationship

CH.2

What is a positive (direct) relationship? 

X increases, Y increases

 X decreases, Y decreases 

CH.2

What is a negative (inverse) relationship? 

X increases, Y decreases

 X decreases, Y increases

Ex.) as age increases, health declines

CH.2

What is a moderating variable?  

Variable that affects the direction and/or strength of the relationship between an independent & dependent

   [influences the strength of relationship of IV & DV]

CH.2 

What is a mediating variable?  

Variable mediates to the extent that it accounts between predictor & criterion

            [explains relationship between IV & DV]

CH.

What is a conceptual definition?  

CH.3

What is an operational definition?  

          Describes a concept in terms of its observable and measurable characteristics or behaviors

CH. 4

What is measurement?  Be able to define.

Allows us to record and order in a systematic way observations of those behavioral characteristics

CH. 4

What is quantitative measurement?  

Systematic observation of hypothesized connections [numbers]

CH. 4

What is qualitative measurement? 

Observing and interacting in natural environment

CH. 4

What is triangulation?  

Using more than one source for research

CH. 4

What are the four (4) different types of triangulation?  

1.     Methodological triangulation

-use of and comparisons made among multiple methods to

          study the same phenomenon.

2.     Data triangulation:

-number of data sources are used.

CH.4

four different types of triangulation (cont')

3.     Researcher triangulation

-multiple researchers are used to collect and analyze data.

4.     Theoretical triangulation

-using multiple theories and/or perspectives

     to interpret the same data.

CH.4

What are the four (4) levels of measurement? N.O.I.R

1. Nominal

     - differentiated on the basis of type of category;

             classification based on category

                   ex.) political party [democrate, republican] or sex [male, female]

2.     Ordinal  classify into categories but also rank order those categories along dimension

            ex.)class standing [freshman, etc]

                   list favorite shows and rank [1, 2, 3]

CH. 4

        what are the four levels of measurement                                       (cont')

2.     Interval

                       categorize and rank, but also establish equal distances between  adjacent point on scale.

            ex.) no absolute zero point

                    scale [ 1 to 5 ]

3.     Ratio

categorize, rank, equal distance, but also establish an

    absolute or true zero points

             ex.) pain [ 1 to 5 ] 

CH. 4

What is a Likert scale?  

5 point scale; Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree

CH. 4

What is a Likert-type scale?  

    Any point scale; variations of choices [ Not at all Satisfied to Very Satisfied; 5, 7, 9 point scale]  

CH.4

What is a semantic differential scale? 

Measure the meanings people ascribe to a specific stimulus

            Ex.)  bipolar adjectives

                        -Good ____: ____:_____: Bad

                        -Cold ____:____:_____: Warm

CH.4

What is a Thurston scale?

Generate many statements (100+), asked to judge how strong an idicator it is of a concept

CH.4

What is a unidimensional concept? 

     Measured by a set of indicators that can be added together equally to derive a single, overall score

CH.4

What is a multidimensional concept?  

Concepts that incorporate more than one factor, and, therefore, must be measured by more than one set of scale items  

Each different sub-concept is known as a factor

                  ex.) credibility

                        -authoritative, trustworthiness, dynamics

CH.4 

What are the different forms of measurement (e.g., physiological, neurological, behavioral)?

    -physiological measure

physical changes   ex.) heart rate; blood pressure

             -neurological measure

                                    brain functions   ex.) MRI; brain wave patterns

             -behavioral measure

                                   observe a person’s behavior   ex.) facial expressions

CH.4 

What is self-report measurement?  What are the advantages and disadvantages of this method?

Ask people to report on their own characteristics/behaviors

 advantages: efficient [resourceful way to ascertain respondent’ beliefs, attitudes, values]

disadvantages:

-recall [invalid if people are not able and/or willing to provide complete & accurate information

-social desirability bias [tendency to answer in socially desirable ways especially controversial issues or deviant behavior]

CH.5 

What is validity? Be able to define.

accuracy, measuring what researcher claims to measure

CH.5

What is internal validity?  

    concerns the accuracy of the conclusions drawn from                             a particular research study

ex.) Examines design of research for accuracy in findings

CH. 5

What is external validity? Be able to define and identify in a scenario.

concerns the generalizability of the findings from a research study.

  Ex.) Examines if conclusions can be applied to other contexts, people, etc.

CH.5

What is reliability? 

Consistency, stability, precision, dependability

CH.5

What is the relationship between measurement validity and reliability?

Something can be reliable without being valid

                   Ex.) reliable scale and get similar results over time but not be valid when measuring

“R” has two feet so it can stand alone! 

     Validity: something cannot be valid without reliability, in being valid it is by definition reliable

CH.5

What is the test-retest reliability method?

Same questions given to the same

   group of people at different times

CH.5

What is a interobserver?

2 different people coming up with the same results (content analysis)

CH.5

Be able to define and identify the different types of measurement validity 

[see LECTURE notes]

T/F

The variable that is thought to influence the changes in another variable is called a dependent variable.

False (independent variable)

T/F

There is no difference between a Likert scale and a Likert-type scale

FALSE (likert scale set 5 points, likert –type can have 5 more types & can have unsatisfied, very satisfied, etc.)

T/F

An ordinal level measure provides more information than a nominal level measure

TRUE (N.O.I.R)

In a quantitative research article, we should expect the theoretical and pragmatic justification for the study to be explained in the:

introduction section 

A communication scholar could operationalize “love” by measuring all of the following except:

a.)   number of times one says “I love you”

All of the above

If the researchers use both the new instrument and an existing older one in the study they are about to conduct, they could attempt to establish what type of validity?

Concurrent

CH. 3

What is a Title, Abstract, and Introduction in a scholarly journal article?

title: describe concisely the core contents of the papers

abstract: summarize the major elements of the paper

Introduction: provide context and rationale for the study

CH.3

What is a Methodology, Results,Discussion, and References in a scholarly journal article?

methodology: describe the experimental procedures

results: summarize findings without interpretation

discussion: interpret the findings of the study

references: list all citations

CH.1 

What are claims?  

assertions or conclusions

CH.1

What is evidence? 

reason that supports the claim 

Ch. 1

What is the relationship between claims and evidence?  

validity of claim is related to validity of evidence

CH.1

What is a warrant?

a statement (another claim) that logically connects the claim and evidence

CH.1

What is an appeal to faith? 

a belief that does not rest on logical proof or material evidence 

CH.1 

What are the three (3) main cultures of research and what is involved with each?

1. physical sciences: scholars study the physical and natural world such as physics, chemistry, & biology

 2. humanities: scholars produce creative products and study the achievements of creative people of music, art, literature

 3. sciences: scholars apply methods to the study of human behavior such as anthropology, psychology, and sociology

CH.1 

Where does communication fit within the three main cultures of research?

it overlaps each of the 3 main cultures

CH.1 

What is a paradigm?  

a worldview

CH.1

What is the positivist paradigm? 

Concerned with how to apply some of the methods used in the physical sciences to the study of human behavior

-stresses ‘science’ aspect of “social science”

CH.1

What is the naturalistic paradigm?  

Concerned with the development of methods that capture the socially constructed nature of human behavior

            -stresses ‘social’ aspect of “social science”

CH.2

What is an information exchange perspective?  

   Concerned with how communication can be used as a tool to transfer information from one person (source) to another (receiver)

CH. 2

What is a meaning-based or constitutive perspective?

Concerned with how our experiences of reality are a product of communicative activity

CH.2

 What is communication? 

Refers to the processes by which verbal and nonverbal messages are used to create and share meaning

CH.2

What is a research topic? 

The idea worth studying and hope to understand better

CH.2

What is the purpose of basic communication research? 

to increase our knowledge about communication phenomena by testing, refining, and elaborating theory

CH.2

What is the purpose of applied communication research?  

Solving a “real world” socially relevant communication problem

CH.2

What are some differences between basic and applied communication research in terms of: (a) nature of the problem, and (b) goals of the research?  See Figure 2-6.

A. Nature of Problem:

       Basic: seeks to establish general principles about comm.

       Applied: seeks to understand an important comm. Problem

B. Goals of Research:

       Basic: produce theoretical principles that simplify and explain complex related communication processes

       Applied: provide knowledge that can be immediately useful to a policy maker who seeks to eliminate a communication problem 

CH.2

What are ordered variables? 

Are assigning numerical values that indicate how much of the concept is present

Ex. age, weight, temperature

CH.2

What are nominal variables? 

“in name only” Variables such as gender, race or political affiliation 

CH.2

What is a research question? 

Formal question posed to guide research 

CH.2

When would you use a research question instead of a hypothesis?

When researchers don’t have enough evidence, on the basis of the literature reviewed to predict the nature of that relationship

CH.3

 What is a primary research report?

first reporting of a research study by the person who actually conducted

the study

CH.3

What is a secondary research report? 

report of a research study by someone other than the person who conducted the study 

CH. 3

What is the peer-review process?

Process of having colleagues in the field evaluate manuscripts submitted for publication 

CH. 4

What is operationalization?  

Identifying and determining how to measure the observable, characteristics of whatever concepts or variables researchers wish to study

CH.4

What is conceptual fit? 

The strong linkage between a conceptual and operational definition. The closer the conceptual fit, the more likely it is that researchers are observing the phenomenon they intend to study. The looser the fit, the greater the danger that researchers are observing a phenomenon different from the one they intend to study. 

CH.5

What is measurement validity? 

Refers to how well researchers measure what they intend to measure. The more closely the measured data reflect the observable characteristics of the research concepts, the more valid is that measurement technique

CH.5 

What is measurement reliability? 

Measuring something in a consistent and stable manner. The more reliable a measurement is, the more dependable it is because it leads to similar outcomes 

CH.5

What is a reliability coefficient?  

A reliability assessment. It provides indicator that tells the percentage of time a measurement is reliable, or free of error

CH. 5

What is internal consistency?

The extent to which items on a measurement instrument give similar results

CH. 5

What is the split-half reliability method?

Assessed by separating people’s answers on an instrument into 2 parts (half the questions in one part, and half in the other) and then comparing the 2 halves. Answers won’t be completely 100% but should be at least 70%