Term
| Wenner's Transactional Model |
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Definition
| All sports comm. exists as a transaction between the various communicators involved, each impacts the others. |
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Term
| Strength of Wenner's Model |
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Definition
| offers an analysis of the various phases of sports comm. and how they are interconnected with culture. |
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Term
| Weakness of Wenner's Model |
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Definition
| offers a descriptive but not particularly critical model. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ask "how do the various streams of spors information work their way through the social order and, in the end, impact the collective audience?" |
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Term
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Definition
| see asports comm. as existing in a series of transacating systems that directly impact each other and create sports culture. |
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Term
| The 4 Transacting Systems |
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Definition
1. Society
2. The Production Complex
3. Mediated Sports content
4. The audeince experience with that content
*These transacting systems create a "suprasytem," the system containing sports media production organizations, the sports culture. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ideological approach & Hegemonic order |
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Term
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Definition
| Sports are a means used by the hegemonic order to keep control/power over the populace. |
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Term
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Definition
| A persuasive system that keeps power throughout the social order by coercive means through the communication channels/symbol systems of the social order. |
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Term
| 2 Strengths of Hegemonic order |
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Definition
A. Offers a comprehensive critical analysis of sports
B. offers a helpful emphasis on sports and sports comm. as commodities, products sold back and forth within the culture. |
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Term
| Weaknesses of Hegemonic order |
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Definition
Comes with a truckload of baggage:
i. one must assume the existence of a hegemonic order (Wenner criticizes this about critical approaches)
ii. Personal expression and intension tends to disappear into a monolithic hegemonic set of inputs. |
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Term
| Where do critical approaches come from? |
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Definition
| Image and sports (image and culture has long been tied to the study of signs or "semiotics" |
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Term
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Definition
- Image is the simplified code we give to a person, group, organization, belief system, or other system
- Image identifies a set of emotionals responses with that subject. |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of signs and their use in creating and reinforcing cultural norms. |
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Term
| Roland Barthes' take on semitoics (Signification) |
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Definition
The first level of signification is simply the application of WORDS TO THINGS.
Second level signification (which occurs automatically) CREATES MYTHS, SOCIAL SYMBOLS EMBEDDED WITH PURELY CULTURAL MEANING AND VALUES.
- These myths are the language that create our culture. "Myths can reach everything, corrupt everything" - Barthes |
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Term
| Fisher's narrative appraoch |
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Definition
| We can examine and assess all human communication as story telling. |
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Term
| Theoretical grounding of Fisher's approach |
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Definition
a. Humans are "Homo nerrans" - the story telling creatures. Our unique ability is our ability to communicate and create meaning in our lives through stories.
b. All human comm. = story telling
c. As stories, comm. carries, reinforces, and draws on the values of our culture. |
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Term
| How do we assess narratives? |
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Definition
| Coherence (probability) and Fidelity |
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Term
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Definition
| The internal consistency of the story |
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Term
| Characterological coherence |
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Definition
Stories are made up of the actions of characters.
We assess characterological coherence by the actual tendencies of characters. |
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Term
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Definition
the "tendency" for characters to act in consistent ways (characters will cheat).
Are the character's actions consistent with their actional tendences? (do the characters act in uncharacteristic ways?) |
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Term
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Definition
THe eternal consistentcy of story
1. Is the story consistent with otehr stories already accepted as true?
2. Is the story conssitent with other stories of its type (game)? |
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Term
| What will we draw from these theories? #1 |
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Definition
| We will examine sports communication as transaction between a varity of sources over a variety of media and recognize that all these transactions are INTERCONNECTED |
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Term
| What will we draw from these theories #2? |
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Definition
| Transactions as buying and selling commodities (sports heroes, products used in advertising sports, advertising time for corporations, cultural recognition, and so on). |
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Term
| What will we draw from these theories? |
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Definition
| Sports icons and symbols as myths, symbols, permeated with cultural meaning which draw on those social values TO CREATE CULTURE (sports culture, and to extent, culture as a whole) and to SELL COMMODITIES |
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Term
| What will we draw from these theories #4? |
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Definition
| How various media put these symbols together to create storeis that reinforce values, create values, and sell their products. |
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Term
| What will we draw from these theories? 5 |
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Definition
| How sports organizations, media, and fans draw on the values of this culture. |
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Term
| Four ways we conceive of sport |
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Definition
1. As a MODEL
2. as an INDUSTRY
3. as SOCIAL RITUAL/MEANS FOR CREATING COMMUNITY
4.as MEANS FOR ESTABLISHING POWER/MANIPULATION/SOCIAL CONTROL |
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Term
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Definition
Sports figures represent our highest ideals in work and talent.
When they succeed - we feel established and transcendent (with work and talent, we too can succeed)
When they fail - We find the MORAL LESSONS OF TRAGEDY
Goes back to Greek culture - view identified with conservatives - expressed in George Will's Men at Work |
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Term
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Definition
Sports exist in a COMPLEX WEB OF CONSUMERS & PRODUCERS
PRODUCERS -----CONSUMERS
players ---- organizations
org.s ------ fans
reporters ----- fans
reporters-----orgs
reporters------players
orgs------reporters
players-----reporters
(Organizaitons sell access to reporters)
This pragmatic conception of sports typically guides sports organizations and media |
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Term
| Sports as a social ritual/means for creating community |
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Definition
We create community through identification with teams
Rules of game and way its played REINFORCE SOCIAL NORMS (concern with fair play, cheating, teamwork, social expression, etc. tells US ABOUT OUR VALUES)
Many historians and sociologists begin with this conception of sports. |
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Term
| Sports as means for establishing power |
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Definition
The hegemonic power that control the social order use sport to enforce social roles and rules on the populace and to sedate the masses so they don;'t recognize this control
- The ideological appraoch that is so popular among academics today (Sut Jhally) |
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Term
| How organizations create the story and public image of sport in America. They persuade us to: |
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Definition
1. see the role of the sports org. as LEGITIMATE
2. see players as MODELS OF SPORTSMANSHIP AND SPORTS IDEALS
3. See the game as FAIR
4. trust the sports ogs. to have THE BEST INTEREST OF THE SPORT AND SPORTSMANSHIP AT HEART
5. Rely on sports orgs to offer a CONSISTENT AND QUALITY PRODUCT |
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Term
| First governing organizaitons for each 19th century sport had to: |
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Definition
1. establish "official rules for sport
2. draw on common values to create an "image" for the sport and its players
3. create an audience for sport (THROUGH MEDIA) |
|
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Term
| existence of Penny Press (roughly began around 1830s) led to: |
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Definition
1.ANNOUNCEMENTS of sporting events and PUBLIZATION of results of those events
2. the rise of population that FOLLOWED sports through print media
3. possbility of creating a sport that encased LOCAL borders by:
a. being reported across regions
b. establishing rules of play across regions to make teams "competitive"
c. develop local interest by creating "local" teams that could then be reported by press |
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Term
| State of sports around 1830s |
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Definition
vast majority of public had no opportunities to engage in sports
little income
class sytems shaped by British system, working public not seen to have rights to play sports (working class)
Printing press allowed public that would never have ability to take part in major sports to FOLLOW SPORTS and become FANS (part of the game)
Sports reserved for Leisure class. |
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Term
| Growth of Penny Press-Newspapers and the Tabloid Wars |
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Definition
1. Penny Press evolved during 1810s and 20s
2. Produced on cheap pulp stock
3. Papers were able to exchange info and align in syndicates allowing broad (and fast) dissemination of information
4. Rise of major cities (NYC and CHicago) had Penny evolve into the major newspapers of the 19th century
5. Most cities had at least 4-5 newspapers
1880s NYC had:
Journal (Hearst)
World (pulitzer)
Sun (Dana)
Herald
Post
TImes
# of smaller dailies
6. Papers took political sides and fought for readership (publishers found sports coverage helped build circulation
7. 1895 - Hearst's Journal published the first full and continuing Sports section |
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Term
| Horse Racing and Early American Gentleman |
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Definition
Horse racing, shooting, formal hunting = reserved for "gentlemen"
Posed miuch interest as a large spectator sport |
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Term
| Horse racing associations were developed to do the following (4 things): |
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Definition
1. Eliminate cheating
2. Reinforce value of ownership (limiting number of recognized horse owners)
3. Regulate rules
4. Through all of these, reinforce sport as a "gentleman's sport"
- Gentlemen's sports: highest sports were taken up by colleges only when "gentlemen" went to college. "Roughouse sports" only for lower classes and suscpect/and or illegal |
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Term
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Definition
| San Francisco Athletic club began to legitimate "Gentleman" Jim Corbett as a "gentleman" and a boxer in teh 1880s |
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Term
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Definition
First undisputed heavyweight champion of boxing in 1882
"The Barbarian"
Last of the bare knuckle/London prize rules
"I can lick my SOB in the joint"
Barely literate
Chased fights across country
Boxing as war |
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Term
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Definition
1892 - defeated Sullivan (was sex symbol, made boxing most popular non-team sport in America)
"The Sophisticate"
First of the Marquis Queensbury champs
"Boxing is a gentleman's sport"
Played Broadway
Fought out of SF Athletic Club
Boxing as sexy
---- only sports figure Edison shot (wore a thong, essentially) |
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Term
| Athletic clubs and Sports Promotion: created positive image for the sports they promoted by (2): |
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Definition
1. Promote vigorous "sportsman's" life
2. Promote specific athletes as "gentlemen" sportsmen |
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Term
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Definition
| 1897 - gambler who wanted to promote "fight of the century" - heavyweight champ fight between James J. Corbett and Bob Fitzsimmons |
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Term
| Corbett vs. Fitzsimmons fight: INNOVATIONS BROUGHT (4) |
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Definition
1. Filmed for sale to "magical lantern" (movie) industry
a. HUGE
b. afterwards, important "sports events" would gain iomportance from the media which they were broadcast or shown
2. Heavyweight championship moves from criminal activity to IMPORTANT SOCIAL EVENT
3. heavyweight champ becomes the ICONIC SYMBOL OF SPORT by his place at the center of the event
4. Boxing becomes a PROMOTER'S SPORT (something it remains today) |
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Term
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Definition
functioned as publci entities - sport was sport for common person
popularized and sustained a sport played for lesiure and for spectators |
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Term
1846 New York Knickerbocker Base Ball Club and their 3 goals:
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Definition
1. Establish consitent rules for game (needed league)
2. Popularize sport around the greater NY area by challenging other clubs
3. Set rules for decorum (presenting yourself as GENTLEMAN was important for social acceptability)
- couldn't spit, curse, etc., fined 6.25 cents) |
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Term
1869 - Cincinnati Red Stockings
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Definition
A. First fully pro baseball org.
B. Created by HARRY WRIGHT to capitalize on "Baseball fever" in Cincy
C. Challenged teams across eastern US (went undefeated and grossed $1.39 profit for season)
D. Lost for first time June 14, 1870 to Brooklyn Atlantcics
E. First loss killed fan base and baseball fever in Cincy
F. Soon disbanded |
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Term
|
Definition
| 1871 - first full league of professional clubs |
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Term
| 4 problems with National Association |
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Definition
1. Inconsistent play
2. Financial failures
3. Players viewed as "roughnecks"
4. Gambling + games (problem until 1920) |
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Term
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Definition
| 1876 - longest continuous sports org. in history. Challenged N.A. by dealing with most the N.A.'s problems through organizational rules |
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Term
| Key improvements in National League rules (4) |
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Definition
1. unfified rules for all teams
2. created rules relfecting larger social norms (Blue Laws)
3. strengthened rules regarding player behavior (on and away from field)
4. Created RESERVE CLAUSE |
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Term
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Definition
Most important sports innovation in 19th century - remain unchanged for 100 years
Clause in every MLB player's contract that said if player WAS NOT SIGNED OR RELAEASED BY CLUB ON GIVEN DATE, THEY WOULD AUTOMATICALLY BE CONTRACTED TO CLUB UNDER PREVIOUS SEASON'S CONTRACT |
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Term
7 EFFECTS OF RESERVE CLAUSE
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Definition
1. players had no control over career, choices, longevity, or use
2. teams could control player throughout career
3. teams often held players for entire careers
4. players became closely identified with teams
5. players closely identified with communities
6. players to be seen as role models and idols in communities
Joe Dimaggio - yankee clipper
Duke Snider - duke of flatbush
ted williams - boston's splendid splinter
Yankee stadium - house that Ruth built
7. Through player identification, sports team became closely identified with their communities (Bvrooklyn died when Dodgers left)
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Term
| National League did what? |
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Definition
| made baseball a FAMILY sport. organizers understood importance of communicating in manner that was consistent with values and beliefs of broader culture |
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Term
| American Baseball Association |
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Definition
"Beer and Whiskey League"
1882
weakened rules on player behavior, alcohol/gambling at stadium, etc.
couldn't legitimate itself with larger public (no strict control over player and fan conduct, had gambling
failed and became subsumed in the NL |
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Term
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Definition
Baseball fever
Indicates close relationship played between sports adn media in creating important events in popular culture |
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Term
Casey at the Bat: A Ballad of the Republic sung in the Year 1888:
The Characters: |
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Definition
1. William Randolph Heart - PUBLISHER of the San Fran Examiner, soon to become owner of largest media empire of its day
2. Ernest Thayer - WRITER, college friend of Heart, was hired to write columns for examiner
3. DeWolf Hopper - renowned light comedy/opera actor and baseball fanatic
4. Lee DeForest - creator of first sound of film process |
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Term
| Story of Casey at the Bat: |
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Definition
1. June 3, 1888 - Ernest Thayer writes a poem on baseball fever that is published in Examiner
2. Friend of Hopper reads and saves for Hopper
3. Early August, 1888 - Hopper's friend delivers poem to him saying they should use it for comic reading
4. NYC is gripped in baseball fever as Giants and White Stockings are playing for championship
5. Hopper's theater (The Wallack) produced a special performance of the comedy opera PRINZ METHUSALEM for the teams
6. This performacne was loaded with references to the series and baseball fever
7. as an encore, Hopper performed the poem.
8. Hopper did not intend to perform it again, but begna to do so as Vaudeville began to replace comic opera as popular theater in U.S.
9. As poem became known, most famous MLB player KING KELLY began performning it on stage
10. Thayer embarassed of poem, denied writing unless others claimed to
11. Hopper spent next 30 years giving colorful performances of poem across vairous media
12. in 1907, famed sports writer GRANTLAND RICE wrote a sequel "Casey's Revenge"
13. In 1922, Lee DeForest recorded Hopper's performacne on his newly invented Sound on Film, salvaging a unique part of American pop culture |
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Term
| 3 Conclusions of Casey at the Bat |
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Definition
1. No poem had greater impact on USA culture than Casey
2. Story of poem's rise to prominence shows how much of growing interrelationship of sports & media
3. Interplay would shape american pop culture and history |
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Term
| Major challengers for place in MLB |
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Definition
1. 1901 - American League (most successful, challenged on perceived weaknesses of NL)
2. 1914 - Federal League (last major challenge to MLB)
3. 1946 - the Mexican League
4. 1930s-50s - The Pacific Coast League (some would say had best players on average) |
|
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Term
| American League and 3 comp. adv.'s |
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Definition
"Maverick League"
a. Storng, vocal, powerful president Ban Johnson
b. Slightly eased NL social rules such as BLue Laws
c. Briefly eliminate reserve clause to entice NL players to sign with AL teams and setting up competing teams in NL cities (Red Sox immediately replaced Boston Braves) |
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Term
| Federal League's 4 tactics for public notice and challenge MLB |
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Definition
1. Bring in only stable, well-to-do owners
2. raid the major leagues for players
3. challenge ML teams w/ competing local franchises
4. sue MLB as monopoly
- Judge Kennesaw Mountain Landis, later MLB commish
- refused to rule on case for months, Fed Legue ran out of money for lawsuits + WWI |
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Term
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Definition
Mexican multimillionaire Jorge Pasquel
create ML in Mexico by raiding US's Major Leagues
league lasted briefly, but lawsuits over five year bans by MLB for players jumping to Mex League led to first COngressional investigations of MLB monopolistic policies |
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Term
| MLB Response to PCL Challenge (6): |
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Definition
1. Major league baseball refused to negotiate with PCL
2. Giants and Dodgers moved west in 1957 (displacing LA teams)
3. in 1961 expansion, MLB granted cowboy Star Gene Autry rights to LA ANgels franchise
4. Angels helped solidify the MLB presence in LA and PCL lost biggest market
5. PCL team moved or disbanded
6. LA Angels moved to Spokane for ending their existence as the Wichita Aeros |
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Term
| 5 Conclusions on success of ML Baseball |
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Definition
1. NL succeeded in ID'ing baseball w/ popular social values
2. Reserve clause = close ID with teams, players, communtieis
3. AL succeeded = symbolic balance as "maverick" league
4. League controlled revenue and labor costs through reserve clause
5. Through this control, league established consistency (no franchises moved or lost for 50 years) creating greater legitmacy in American culture than any sport has possessed |
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Term
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Definition
Football was solely a college sport into well into 20th century
remained variation of British ruby
Walter Camp = coach at Yale, got several other coaches and schools to grees on consistent rules in 1871 (set of down added in 1882)
Game was still violent (18 players killed in play over next few years, thus banned at many schools)
1905 - Theodore Roosevelt saved sport at many uni's |
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Term
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Definition
Promoter during the "Golden Age of Sports" - the 1920s
1. Promoted all heavyweight championship bouts 1919-1926
2. Promoted first million0dollar gate (Jack Dempsey vs. Georges Carpentier)
3. (Dempsey = WWI slacker tough guy vs French war heor Carpentier, later Dempsey = US hero vs. Wild Bull of the Pampas" Luis Firpo |
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Term
| "Golden Age of Sports" grew from two coinciding events: |
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Definition
1. Jack Dempsey's filmed and brutal defeat of Jess Willard for the Heavyweight championship
2. Rise of sports reporters who became celebrated for their often purple prose
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Term
| Athletes of Golden Age of Sports (7) |
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Definition
1. Jack Dempsey - boxing
2. Red Grange - college football
3. Babe Ruth - MLB star
4. Bill Tilden - tennis
5. Bobby Jones - golf
6. Man O'War - champ racehorse
7. Notre Dame football
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Term
| Writers of Golden Age of sports |
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Definition
1. Damon Runyon
2. Grantland Rice
3. Shirley Rovich |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Became famous fiction writer on inner city live. Also openly promoted favorite players and sports |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Made the "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse" Notre Damn frontline legendary. Only promoted favorite players and sports
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Term
|
Definition
| covered sports in Washington DC as sports + politics began to ahve a greater impact on each other |
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Term
| 2 other media that Created GOLDEN AGE OF SPORTS |
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Definition
for the first time, films of sports events were consistntly shown in theaters on new reels + special programs (fams able to see heros in action)
radio = became viable as a commercial media for broadcasting games |
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Term
| Boxing Contemporary promoters |
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Definition
1. Don King - Promoter = pontificator, comic relief, personality, bigger than fight
2. Bob Arum - Promoter = multi-million profit maker
3. Oscar De La Hoya and Golden Boy Productions - Promoter = Celebrity boxer |
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Term
| 4 Missions of NFL Commish office: |
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Definition
1. Regulate plays (set rules)
2. Promote sport
3. Enhance value of owner's investments
4. Expand league |
|
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Term
| AFL challenge and 3 strategies for legitimacy |
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Definition
1960 - only major challenge to NFL
1. Gain television contracts for games
2. Drafted top NCAA players and paid more
3. Place teams in major markets (NYC, Dallas, etc.)
1969 - NFL merged into current NFL |
|
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Term
| 3 Leagues tried to challenge NFL and failed |
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Definition
1. World Football league 1974-75 (failed to gain key TV contracts)
2. USFL 1983-85 - failed to keep TV contracts, too many financially unsound franchises
3. XFL 2002 - failed to legitimate itself as pro-caliber |
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Term
| Pete Rozelle and how he used TV (4 ways) |
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Definition
NFL commish 1960s and 70s
used TV:
1. legitimate sport as spectacle (MNF and exploitations of Super Bowl)
2. legitimate sport as entertainment (MNF key to expanded TV packages sold to networks)
3. expand the league (After AFL merger, expansions continued with TB and SEA in 1976, expansion in 1993, realignment of league
4. Promote the sport (expansion of marketing (TV especially) expansion of programming beyond games (Super Bowl Spectaculars, etc.) |
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Term
Growth of TV Sports: Key Events
1939 |
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Definition
| NBC broadcasts first televised baseball game between COlubmia - Princeton (test games of Brooklyn Dodgers that summer) |
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Term
Growth of TV Sports: Key Events
1941 - 45 |
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Definition
| WWI largely ended new TV sports production |
|
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Term
Growth of TV Sports: Key Events
1948 |
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Definition
| Tv begins to become viable commercial medium (though most teams first refused for fears of curbed attendance) |
|
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Term
Growth of TV Sports: Key Events
1951 - 55
|
|
Definition
| Broadcast of games lead to jump in attendacne |
|
|
Term
Growth of TV Sports: Key Events
1955 - 1959 |
|
Definition
| televised world series and the MLB move west make MLB a truly National sport |
|
|
Term
Growth of TV Sports: Key Events
1957 - 1959
|
|
Definition
| NFL begins making moves in Network ratings |
|
|
Term
Growth of TV Sports: Key Events
1961 |
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Definition
| AFL leads to TV networks comp. |
|
|
Term
Growth of TV Sports: Key Events
1960s |
|
Definition
| NFL gets package deals with networks, guaranteeing coverage |
|
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Term
Growth of TV Sports: Key Events
1960s |
|
Definition
| ABC's wid world of sports, anthology seires, introudces a broad variety of international sports to American audiences |
|
|
Term
Growth of TV Sports: Key Events
1971 |
|
Definition
| Monday Night Football debuts |
|
|
Term
Growth of TV Sports: Key Events
1970s |
|
Definition
| Roone Arledge pushes for more personalize coverage of athletes during ABC's Olympics broadcasts (up close and personal, the ABC way) |
|
|
Term
Growth of TV Sports: Key Events
1970s |
|
Definition
| CBS creates "Sports Spectacular" to compete with ABC's wide world of sports |
|
|
Term
Growth of TV Sports: Key Events
1976 |
|
Definition
| first cable network of sports broadcasts - "sports channel" later Fox Sports |
|
|
Term
Growth of TV Sports: Key Events
1979, 1994, 2006
|
|
Definition
1979 - creation of ESPN (September)
1994 - Fox Sports wins the CBS NFL package
2006 - MNF moves to ESPN, making cable the dominant TV sports Media in the U.S. |
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