Disciplined inquiry that involves studying something in a planned manner and reporting it so that other inquirers can potentially replicate the process if they choose

-The self-correcting process of finding the truth through a series of objective analyses through constant testing

-alternatives are: personal experience, intuition, authority, tradition, and superstition

Concepualization: Identify Topic, Review Literature, Pose Research Question

Planning and Designing Research: Operationalize (measure) variables, design valid/reliable/ethical

Methodologies for Conducting Research: collecting data through experiments, surveys etc

Analyzing and Interpreting Data: appropriate statistical procedure, know which way to do the study is best

Reconceptualization: Explain findings, limitations, future directions

Proprietary Research- is for internal purposes by a private company; conducted for a specific audience and is not necessarily shared beyond that audience

Scholarly Research-peer reviewed; shared publically; involves detailed review of literature; advancement of knowledge motive; not profit motive; promote public access to knowledge

Quantitative Research

- Also known as empirical or positivists

-reality is objective

-people can be categorized into groups

-generalizable explanations of behaviors

-fixed hypotheses

-surveys, experiments, content analysis

 Qualitative Research

 -also known as critical or naturalistic

-reality is subjective

-people can’t be categorized into groups
-unique explanations of behaviors

-evolving hypotheses

-focus groups, textual analysis, rhetorical criticism

A theory is simply a generalization about a phenomenon; an explanation of how or why something occurs. It’s a way of making sense of a disturbing situation-Kaplan

Basic Research: increase our knowledge about communication phenomena by testing, refining and elaborating theory; Examples is communication theory; predicts certain outcomes; and excites inquiry;

Applied Research: conducted with the purpose of solving a real world problem; action research; ex. Social justice communication research; journal of applied communication research; used to demonstatrate the relevance of communication knowledge to a particular event

In basic research a theory is never complete it keeps wanting to extend beyond a grasp, continually try to describe, explain, understand, predict and control more communication phenomena. (build upon existing theory)

In applied, you are hoping the study yields valid generalizations about, and potential solutions to the problem.(using existing theory to solve problem) 

1.       Selection of a research topic

2.       The choice of an appropriate theory to help explain important aspects of the research topic. A hypotheses is then derived from the theory and the accuracy of that prediction is tested in a study.

3.       Data are collected and analyzed and they are used to gauge the merits of the prediction

If the findings do not support the hypothesis, more research may need to be conducted, the hypothesis needs to be revised and/or the theory may need to be revised or rejected

-it doesnt var and doesnt have 2 values to it

-it becomes a variable only when it exists in different types or in different ampounds and we understand those different states.

Independent Variables

 -controlled by researcher

-intentionally manipulated by researcher

-may be sometimes measured

-cause or predictor or explanatory

-influences the change in another variable

 Ex-amount of income

Dependent Variables

 -not controlled or manipulated

-always measured

-effect or criterion or outcome variables

-vary in relation to independent variables

 Ex-amount of money spent

A causal relationship between variables, believing that changes in the independent variable cause changes in the dependent variable, Ex- smoking cigarettes causes cancer

A non-causal relationship between variables means that the variables are associated or occur together without one necessarily causing changes in the other.  Ex: self-disclosure and liking

Recursive Causal Models- the causal relationship is one way—one variable influences another but not the other way around, that is one is the cause and one is the effect.

Ex-Gender influences different ways of thinking but different ways of thinking don’t influence gender.

Non-Recursive Causal Models: the causal relationship is reciprocated or two ways in that a variable can be a cause and an effect.

Ex-More drinking may lead to less studying and less studying may lead to more drinking

Ordered Variables-can be assigned numerical values that indicate how much of the concept is present. Variables such as age, weight, temperature, number of sexual partners are ordered variables.

Nominal Variables - can be differentiated only on the basis of type. Variables such as gender, race and political affiliation, hair color. (Categorical, Classificatory, Discrete)

1.       What is a hypothesis? What is the distinction between an one tailed (directional) and a two tailed (nondirectional) hypothesis?

Hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between the independent and dependent variable.

A one-tailed hypothesis may predict the nature of the relationship.

Boys eat more than girls.

A two-tailed hypothesis simply predicts a relationship without specifying the nature of it.

The amount that boys eat compared to the amount girls eat varies.

  How will a research hypothesis generally be phrased when the independent variable is nominal.

When the independent variable is nominal, divided into two categories, the research question asks whether there is a difference between a (the first category) and b (the second category) with respect to c (the dependent variable).  Is there a difference between males and females with regard to talkativeness?  A hypothesis for a nominal independent variable predicts the nature of the difference between the two or more categories.  It will take the form a will be greater on c than b will. Women talk more than women do.

How will a research hypothesis generally be phrases when the independent variable is ordered?

When the independent variable is ordered, measured in sequenced numbers, the research question asks whether there is a relationship between x (the independent variable) and y (the dependent variable). Does age affect how much you party?  The hypothesis for an ordered independent variable specifies the nature of the relationship between the independent and dependent variable.  They can have a positive relationship, or a negative relationship.

   What is the distinction between positive relationships (direct relationships) versus negative relationships (inverse relationships).

A positive relationship that increases the independent variable is associated with an increase in dependent variable.  More calories ate; the more you will weigh

A negative relationship that increases the independent variable is associated with a decreased in a dependent variable. More exercise you do; the less you weigh

Titles and Authors

Abstract- summary of whole article; determine relevance;

Introduction- importance of study; answers “so what” question; brief summary of purposes; review of literature; provide theory and prior research; hypotheses and research questions

Method-participants; procedures employed: type of design, steps taken; Measures employed: types of measures, manipulation of variables, reliabilities of measures

Results- Data analysis Type of analyses conducted; Numerical results; Statistical significance: likelihood of chance occurrence; Reference to hypotheses and indication of support or lack of support; Tables and Graphs

Discussion- Brief summary of highlights; Interpretation of results and implications of findings; Limitations of study and suggestions for future research

References

Scholarly Journals Vs. Popular  Magazines

Scholarly Journals

-serious look

-contain graphs, pictures, charts

-written by experts in particular field

-report on original research

-often reviewed

-intended audience is scholars

-experts familiar with the language

-credit given to sources

-published by academic presses

Popular Magazines

-available in many formats

-often attractive in appearance

-contain photos and graphics

-written by journalists; not experts

-intended audience is public

-language is simple

-rarely credit sources

-published by commercial presses

-can be purchased at stores

  How are primary sources different from secondary sources?

Primary Sources-are materials that have not been interpreted by another person; diaries, letters, census data, interviews, surveys, research reports, and scholarly journals.

Secondary Sources- these analyze, critique, report, summarize, interpret, or somehow restructure an original work (primary source). Includes reviews, and encyclopedias, textbooks and mass media such as newspapers, magazines, radio.

Reference List- list in alphabetical order by author’s last name.

Journal Article from database

Borman, W. C., Hanson. M. A., Oppler, S. H, Pulakos, E. D. (1993). Role of early supervisory experience in supervisor performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 443-449. Retrieved October 23, 2000, from the PsycARTICLES database.

  What is the difference between pearl growing and the building block approaches to locating relevant sources?

 Explain the distinction between an operational and a conceptual definition.

Operational Definition- describes a concept in terms of its observable and measurable characteristics or behaviors, by specifying how the concept can be observed in actual practice.  What is love- measured by saying I love you, holding hands, staring, smiling.

Nominal Measurement Scales- classify a variable into different categories.  The categories on a nominal measurement scale are not arranged in any particular order from highest to lowerst, they just simply represent different categories.   Ex-Different colors of cheeses and types

What does it mean to say that the categories in a nominal measurement scale must be exhaustive, mutually exclusive and equivilant.

Exhaustive- using every category known, covering every area, use of other, making sure all aspects are covered and all choices are there to choose from.

Exclusive-don’t overlap each other such as types of movies aren’t classified as comedy, romantic comedy, romance, action, horror.

Equivalent- must be equal such as saying favorite shows are comedy, action, half long comedy, and hour long comedy. The half hour and hour long are not equivalent. Comparing apples to

Ordinal measurement scales- not only classify a variable into nominal categories but also rank order those categories along some dimension.  Ordinal measurement provide more information about a variable than a nominal measurement scale because they transform discrete classifications into ordered classifications. They are limited because they only rank order of a variable along a dimension without telling researchers how much more or less of the variable has been measured.

Ex- Rank five top basketball teams in order of most liked (1) to least liked (5)

Interval measurement scales not only categorize a variable and rank order along some dimension but also establish equal distances between each of the adjacent points along the measurement scale. They also include an arbitrary zero point on the scale. Interval scales can have positive or negative values. These provide more information than both nominal and ordered measurements.

Ratio measurement scales not only categorize and rank order of a variable along a scale with equal intervals between adjacent points but also establish an absolute or true zero point where the variable being measured ceases to exist. Ratio measurements are common in the physical sciences but rare in the social sciences.  Can’t have negative values. Example are age, weight and height because these can never be zero.

Likert scales- identify the extent of a person’s beliefs, attitudes or feelings toward some object. The traditional likert scale asks people the extent to which they agree or disagree with a statement by choosing one category on a five point scale that ranges from strongly disagree to strongly agree.  EX- watching too much TV makes one lazier.

Semantic Differential scales- were developed to measure the meanings people ascribe to a specific stimulus. These scales present a stimulus item at the top of a list of a 7 point scale representing polar opposites.  Most measure three dimensions:  evaluation (pleasant-unpleasant), potency (strong-weak), and activity (fast-slow).

Dogs

Pleasant __ __ __ __ __ __ __ Unpleasant

Strong __ __ __ __ __ __ __ Weak

Fast __ __ __ __ __ __ __ Slow

Unidimensional concepts- are measured by a set of indicators that can be added together equally to derive a single overall score. A scale of such items is called a summated scale.

Ex- ask 17 questions and rank 1-5 strongly agree to strongly disagree then add together to see your score ex-how funny are you

Multidimensional scales- are concepts that incorporate more than one factor and must be measured by more than one scale of items (each set of items is a summated scale that can be added together).

EX- Trustworthiness: agreeable/unagreeable; king/cruel, pleasant/unpleasant, safe/dangerous.  And Dynamism: empathetic/hesitant, active/passive, aggressive/meek and bold/timid

What is a social desirability bias? What type of measurement method is most susceptible to problems of social desirability?

Social desirability bias- is the tendency for people to answer in socially desirable ways. This potentially compromises the validity of many self-reports; comes from self-reports about controversial or deviant behavior. Ask-how much do you drink; or asks about racist beliefs.

  What are response sets (response styles)? Explain how using a balanced-scale approach may help to avoid this problem.

Obtrusive  measures- are when people don’t know they are being studied

Nonreactive measures- don’t know they are being studied and so they don’t change their behavior to influence a researcher.

EX- going through someone’s trash without them knowing 

EX- nonreactive is they don’t know you are studying the tone they use when they talk to their parents.

1.       The independent variable must precede in time the dependent variable- first expose respondents to independent variable to see how it affects the dependent variable.

2.       The independent and dependent variables must covary, must go together in a meaningful way.  EX- when it rains in London business groups do good in NYC the next day.

3.       The changes observed in the dependent variable must be the result of changes in the independent variable and not some other variable.

Spurious Relationships- are patterns of statistical but meaningless occurrences; also called nonsense correlations. Such relationships are the stock in trade of many hair brained stock market and gambling schemes as well as fringe conspiracy theories.

EX- when it rains I make better smoothies

Manipulated variable- is when researchers control participant’s exposure to a variable.  Exposing one group to an only an hour of TV a day is a manipulated variable to see how it affects sleepiness.

 Explain the difference between a treatment group and a control group and a comparison group.

Treatment Group-also called the experiment group is the one that receives the manipulated variable

Control Group- the group that doesn’t receive the manipulated variable

Comparison Group-is used in the broad sense to imply any group against which another is compared such as two treatment groups, whereas the control group refers to a no-treatment group.

Random assignment means that each research participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any particular condition of an experiment.  This gives the best possible assurance that the conditions of an experiment start off equivalent because all the initial differences between people that could potentially threaten the validity of the research findings should be distributed evenly across the conditions.  It washes out the initial differences that might make a difference, creating equivalent groups and thereby increasing researchers confidence that any changes in the dependent variable are due to something other than the initial differences between the two conditions,

 Why does random assignment increase internal validity whereas random sampling increases external validity?

Random Sampling- is concerned with how research participants are selected for a study in the first place and making sure that they represent the population from which they are drawn.  Random assignment increases the internal validity by making sure the findings are accurate of those who were studied. Random sampling increases the external validity so that the findings can be generalized to other people, places and times.

What are double blind experiments? What are they designed to do?

Double blind procedures-ensure that those who administer the different independent variable manipulations and those who receive it do not know which participants are getting what manipulation.  They employ an assistant who does not know the purpose of the research. They are trying to control threats such as a participant changing their behavior because they know what exactly they are being observed on.

How are full, quasi and pre-experiments different from one another?

Full Experiments-demonstrate the highest degree of control because the independent variable is manipulated by the researcher and research participants are randomly assigned to create two or more equivalent conditions. Note full experiments demand two or more conditions.

Quasi Experiments- either manipulate or observe the independent variable and may have one or more condition. When there are multiple conditions, research participants are not randomly assigned to them. But quasi equivalent conditions are created by using pre-tests to assess whether there are some important initial differences between the conditions, these use multiple pre-tests and post-tests as baseline measures to assess changes within those same participants before and after and experiment treatment. They exercise an amount of control to some degree.

Pre-Experiments:  demonstrate the least amount of control. They manipulate or observe the independent variable and may have one or more conditions. When there are multiple conditions research participants are not randomly assigned to them. However, initial differences between the conditions are not assessed by using pre-tests, which means the conditions must be assumed to be non-equivalent. When there is only one condition pre-experiments use a single pre-test at most and therefore do not establish any baseline comparison. These demonstrate little or no control leading to questionable conclusions because of the many threats that jeopardize the internal validity of these experiments.

  Explain the three types of full experiments. What are the advantages and disadvantages?

1.       Pre-test Post Test Design- the traditional full experiment. It randomly assigns research participants to a treatment or control group and administers a pretest and posttest. Because random assignment was used, they can rule out a selection bias. The pre-test is used to check whether the conditions started off equivalent on the dependent variable. This design provides a high degree of confidence that the findings are due to treatment. The pre-test however might desensitize participants to the post test.

PRàTreatmentà PO

PRàNo Treatmentà PO

2.       Post Test Only Design- is the same as the previous one except that pre-tests are not used.  This is a very powerful design because it not only takes care of the potential selection threat but it also does not risk desensitizing the participants.

3.       The Solomon Four-Group Design- literally combines the pretest posttest equivalent group and the posttest only group designs. By combining two designs it first shows whether random assignment worked and produced equivalent conditions on the dependent variable by comparing PR1 and PR 2. Second, it shows whether the pretest desensitized participants to the posttest by comparing PO2 and Po4.  Third, assuming sensitization did not occur it reveals whether the pretest combined with the treatment to produce a unique interaction effect that is different from the experiment treatment alone by comparing PO1 and PO3.However this requires twice as many research participants thus is not used too frequently. 

Factorial Design-when there is more than one independent variable studied, the independent variables are called factor and the study is called a factorial design.

A Design Statement- is a series of numbers, one for each independent variable in the study, separated by a multiplication sign. The actual numbers represent the numbes of levels for each independent variable.  2x3 is 2 indepdent variables and 3 conditions

What were the key variables of interest in guest lecturer Amanda Martinez’s study?

-attitudes on perceived racial ID of the comedian; humor; offensiveness; sterotypes as damaging; media enjoyment; guilt

Full experiment

2x2x2 factorial design

-2 levels of comedian

-2 levels of judicial suspect race

-2 levels of participant racial ID

Content Analysis- objective, systematic and quantitative description of manifest content. Can be applied to texts, televisions, film, ads, radio, stamps, and artifacts. It’s descriptive and not inferential. It helps us make unobtrusive observation in natural settings. Unlike experimental methods, we can’t make conclusions about cause-effect relationships. Use to identify, enumerate and analyze occurrences of specific messages and message characteristics embedded in texts.

latent: harder to code, not obvious

manifest: obvious and more relivant

What are some advantages that content analysis offers over other research methods such as experiments and surveys?

1.       It is an unobtrusive technique because researchers study texts that already exist rather than asking people to produce texts.

2.       It accepts unstructured material which observes categorize.

3.       Questionaries’ and interviews often obtain date in settings far from the context in which the communication occurs but context analysts study the data as they appear in context

4.       It is able to handle massive amounts of data.

A sampling unit- the population which we choose a sample- could be a newspaper issue or TV program or film

Unit of analysis- there can be many units of analysis in a single study-lead, story, front page, newspaper, film scene, episode of tv show, channel etc.

  What kind of content did Ms.Katherine Hampsten study? What was her rationale for her choice of content? What were her sampling units and units of analyses?

Her choice of content was food in seventeen magazine because it was over 60 years; always had food in every magazine and had different opinions on it. Used every issue every ten years 1945, 1955 etc.

Interested in age group that views magazine and other experiments that have been done on this same topic