4 dimensions of groups

• Perception of Common Goals
• Perception of Shared Norms
• Structured Interaction
• Interdependence Among Members

Perception of Common Goals

(1 of 4 dimensions of group)

• Members must have perception of common goal
  • Eg. Profit, victory, support

• Individual goals not always = group goals
  • May change/adapt

Perception of Shared Norms

(2 of 4 dimensions of group)

• Norms = Expectations for a group as a whole

  • Appropriate. accepted behavior of members

  • Not always explicit/well-defined

Structured Interactions

(3 of 4 dimensions of group)

• Interaction Dimensions:
  • Time (specific time for interaction)
  • Regularity (once a day/week/momth)
  • Intensity (board meeting vs. office outing)

• Member dimensions:
  • Role
  • Satus (hierarchy)

Interdependence Among Members

(4 of 4 dimensions of group)

• Most important dimension
• How members' behaviors affect other members
• Task interdependence = Labor-based (writer > editor > proofreader > publisher)
• Social/Relational Interdependence = personal

Cohesiveness (definition)

• Extent to which group members find staying together to be of mutual interest
  • Defines group boundaries
  • Develops supportive face
  • Requires conformity

       Cohesiveness à social pressure à convergence upon group norms

Tactics to Promote Cohesiveness

• Encourage external threats (ie. common ground)
• Create history (ie. shared experience)
• Accomplish something (ie. mutual benefits)
• Develop relationships & norms (creates sronger in-group ties & supportive face

Cohesiveness vs. Consensus

(Cohesiveness depends on consensus)

• Agreement on problems/solutions
• Commitment to remain in group + work on problems

Cohesiveness & Group Porductivity

Too much cohesiveness can damage group productivity

(Groupthink)

• Eg. Challenger video (decision layed in 2 peoples hands)

GroupThink (Definition)

• Tendency to come up with false consensus, even when indivual group members disagree
  • Dissagreement is ignored/suppressed for the sake of group cohesion

Pressure to Conform (GroupThink)

• GroupThink is NOT failure to see potential problems, but rather, ignoring then to guarantee group productivity

The 4-stage Group Communicative Process

1. Forming
2. Storming
3. Norming
4. Performing

Forming

(1st phase of Communcation in Groups)

(Orientation) Members get to know eachother

• Communicative Actions:
  • Ambiguity: HIGH
  • Interpersonal Conflict: LOW
• Communicative Activities:
  • Getting Acquainted
  • Clarification - Emergence of a leader

Storming

(2nd phase of Communication in Groups)

(Conflict) members form coalitions/factions

• Communicative Actions:
  • Ambiguity: LOW
  • Interpersonal Conflict: HIGH
• Communicative Activites:
  • Development of Coalitions (ie. cliques)
  • Dissent/disagreement

Norming

 (3rd phase of Communication in Groups)

(Emergence) Articulation of group norms & group ID

• Communicative Actions:
  • Ambiguity: HIGH
  • Interpersonal Conflict: LOW
• Communcative Activities:
  • Dissipation of the dissent and coalitions from storming phase
  • Tend to end up finding a common goal

Performing

(4th phase of Communication in Groups)

(Reinforcement) Cohesiveness develops & productivity increases

• Communicative Action:
  • Ambiguity: LOW
  • Interpersonal Conflict: LOW

Communication Networks

• Network structure depends on communication flow
• Different decisions = Different structures
• Based on:
  • Who talks to whom
  • When
  • How often
  • About what

4 Dimensions of Communication Networks:

• Size
• Reachability
• Density
• Centrality

Size

(1 of 4 Dimensions of Communication Networks)

Reachability

(2 of 4 Dimensions of Communication Networks)

Density

(3 of 4 Dimensions of Communication Networks)

(Def.) Proportion of all possible ties that are actually present (Extent to which members are interconnected)

• % = # of existing links / total # of possible links

• High density = more interconnections
• Low density = less interconnections

Centrality

(4 of 4 Dimensions of Communication Networks)

(Def.) How many members (nodes) an individual is connected to...

• All members have centrality figure
• Most central members have maximum power

Communication Network Structures: Wheel

A

↑

Y ↔ X ↔ M

↓

B

• Density = Low (40%)
• Max Centrality = X (4 nodes)
• Reachability: A > B = A > X >B
• Important: X must be a good communicator

Communication Network Structure:  Chain

A → B → C → X

• Density = Low (50%)
• Max Centrality = B & C (2 Nodes)
• Reachability = Low (A has to go through B & C to get to X)
• "A" and "X" risk isolation

Communication Netwrok Structures: "Y"

A

↓

X

/ \

Y   M

|    |

P    Q

(Standard Beaurocracy)

• Density: Low (45%)
• Max. Centrality: X (3 nodes)
• Reachability: A → Q = A → X → M → Q

Communication Network Structure: Circle

A

Y    X

B

• Density = High (100%)
• Max Centrality: All (2 nodes)
• Risk of Isolation = NONE

Communication Network Structures: All Channels

A

Y  +  X

B

• Density = High (100%)
• Max Centrality = All (3 nodes)
• Reachability: A → B = A → X
• Risk of Isolation = NONE

Functional Group Communication

(Hirokawa & Gouran)

What does the functional approach focus on?

• Why groups make good & bad decisions

• How & Why communication affects group decisions
  • Hirokawa: Quality decisions
  • Gouran: Appropriate decisions

4 Functions for Effective Decision Making

1. Analysis of Problem
2. Goal Setting
3. Identification of Alternatives
4. Evaluation of Positive and Negative Characteristics

Analysis of the Problem

(1 of 4 Functions for Effective Decision Making)

• Assessment of nature, extent, and probable cause of the problem
• Examine ALL aspects

• Eg. Faulty analysis → failure to recognize potential threat

Goal Setting

(2 of 4 Functions for Effective Decision Making)

• What do we want?
• Is this the best way to get it?
• Key aspect of this theory: functional approach

Identification of Alternatives

(3 of 4 Functions for Effective Decision Making)

• What are our other options
• Must be relevant and realistic
• Eg. Faulty process → fewer choices → quick solution
  • But efficiency ≠ effectiveness

Evaluation of Postive and Negative Characteristics

(4 of 4 Functions for Effective Decision Making)

• use criteria developed in stage 2 (goals) to test options in stage 3 (alternatives)
• Two threats:
  • Postive Bias - Tendency to emphasize postive characteristics of an alternative (ignoring negative aspects)
  • Negative Bias - Tendency to emphasize on negative aspects (ignoring positive aspects)

Prioritizing the Functions

High quality decisions ideally fulfills all 4 functions, but priority depends on type of decision

• Eg.
  • What is our sales target this quarter? (set target)
  • What can we do to boost sales in January (Identify alternatives & pos/neg aspects)

Types of Communication (3 types)

• Promotive
• Disruptive
• Counteractive: (MOST IMPORTANT) 

Criticisms of Functional Group Approach

• Too task-oriented & rationalistic
• Does not address extreme cohesiveness (GroupThink)
• Communication types are restrictive
  • Eg. Humor can be cohesive, but is considered "disruptive"

Modified Approach: SWOT Analysis

S- trength: adv./resources (↑)

W- eakness: limitations/faults (↓)

O- pportunities: favorable situations (↑)

T- hreats: danger/menace (↓)

Poole & Adaptive Structuration Theory

Hirokawa & Gouran: Decisions get made based on group structures & task structures

Poole: Decisions not only determined by "Hirokawa & Gouran Theory" but also by what people say and do

Stucturation According to Giddens

"structures are created through human actions and vice versa"

Macro level -- Produces --> Micro level

Structural <-- reproduces -- Individual action/choice

*Note: Produces = creating rules and resources

        Reproduces = using rules and resources

Structures

Organized pattern of action that prevail across time and space

• Social systems consist of multiple structures (ie. organized & regular social practices)
• Eg.
  • Academic guidelines → Schedule → Academic guidelines
  • Computers → Less face-to-face → Computers

Structure: Rules & Resources

1. Rules: formulas for actions (HOW something should be done/what is good or bad)

Eg. regular work hours, detours/walkways

1. Resources: Anything available to use in action (what can be used to get things done)

•  
  • Material (money, tools)
  • Non-material (education, knowledge, skills)

Structure is dynamic b/c...

Individual Actions (2 types)

1. Agency
2. Practical Consciousness

Agency

One's ability to choose & act (challenging structure)

• Give power to the the individual
  • At any time, one can act differently

Practical Consciousness

Being able to function without full awareness of what you're doing (accepting structure & reproducing it)

• Differs from agency b/c
  • Agency = ability to choose & act
  • Practical Consciousness = acting without conscious thought (routinization)

Promotive

(1 of 3 types of communication)

Moves group along goal path focuses on any of the "four functions"

Eg. "Any ideas abou how to increase attendance?"

Disruptive

(2 of 3 Types of Communication)

Diverts or impedes members' ability to achieve any function

Eg. "Hey, you guys going to the game tonight?"

Counteractive

(3 of 3 Types of Communication)

Used by members to get group back on track (most important)

Eg. "Yeah sure, but let's get this attendance thing sorted out first."

Ontological Security

Def: Sense of security & comfort that comes from routine/order (from knowing what to expect)

• Feeling that you can act without fear of consequence
  • Eg. Driving --> other should be able to drive as well, so you should not be scared

Ontological Competence

Individual's ability to function/perform effectively in a given social setting

• High ontological security = high level of onotolgical competence
  • Eg. Job, relationships, social groups, etc.

Duality of Structure

Simultaneous production and re-production of structure

Group Structuration...

... is the result of action, and so whenever members interact, they impact on the group (member interaction creates & structures the group)

• Acc. to Poole (adaptive structuration)
• Group rules & resources change b/c members do something that changes them

Use & Abuse of Rules and Resources-

Members' actions can either:

1. Reproduce existing structures
2. Transform then into something slightly new 

Appropriation (Def.)

Borrowing/using rules & resources from the dominant (parent) structure

Eg. an organization

Faithful Appropriation

Rules/resources used in ways consistent with intended use

• Use of an already successful rule and attributes into other areas

Ironic Appropriation

Rules/resources used in ways that undermine or contradict intended use

(goes against original intent or structure)

• Not always bad = can be creative & helpful task accomplishments (change)
  • Eg. new satire (Colbert Report)

(T/F) Poole thinks that all adaptations of technology/rule/resources must always be faithful

 (6) Approaches & Metaphors

Organization Communication

1. Classic Management (Machine Model)
2. Human Relations (Human Pschology)
3. Human Resources
4. Systems (Biology)
5. Culture (Symbols/symbolism)
6. Critical (Power and Politics)

Rational management of resources to increase production

• Eg. Industrial Rev., factory line

Work environment --> human psychology --> production

Eg. Hawthrone study - illumination vs. production

Better management of organization to meet human needs

Eg. Health Insurance, daycare facilities

• Systems are linked to other systems
• Understand complexity among parts of system

Eg. Subprime mortgage crisis --> collapse of US financial markets --> collapse of global markets

Culture w/in and of organization

Eg. WSU vs. WAZZU

How power dynamics are inherently disadvantages/oppressed

Eg. Glass ceiling effect

• Dimensions of Bureaucracy
• Matrix
• Collectivist/Network

Dimensions of Bureaucracy

(1 of 3 Types of Organizational Structures)

1. Hierarcy
2. Span of Control
3. Division of Labor
4. Unity of Command (each employee has 1 boss)
5. Equitable Remuneration (pay distributed based on tenture + skills)

Matrix

(2 of 3 Types of Organizational Structures)

• Multiple lines of authority & members identified along lines
• Product-driven
• Relations/interactions are not rigid (skill-based)
• No unity of command (variety + effectiveness)

Eg. Haute Couture (a lot of diff departments)

Collectivist/Network

(3 of 3 Types of Organizational Structures)

• Size (# of ppl in network)
• Reachability
• Density
• Centrality

• Peter's & Waterman's Excellent Organizational Culture (EO)

• Schein's Model of Organizational Culture: The "Onion" Model"

• Organizational culture can be controlled and managed
• Faithful Appropriation!!!!
• Dimensions of EO (6)
• Limitations:
  • Ignores context & environment- what works for one may not work for another

• Bias for Action: React Quickly (do not spend excess time planning/analyzing)
• Autonomy Entrepreneaurship (encourage risk-taking & idea dev.)
• Value-driven (all employees share core values)
• Stick to the Knitting: Focus on what you do well (avoid radical diversification)
• Simple Form/Lean Staff (avoid complex organizational struc)
• Close Relations w/ Customers (decisions & actions focused on clients)

• Rooted in Anthropology
• Describes org. culture as:
  • Fragmented
  • Partial
  • Always emergent (dynamic)
• Culture cannot be completely controlled
• 3 layers

• Artifacts: Observable behavior patterns
  • Eg.
    • Come in late to work
    • Rewards for achievement
• Values: Not observable- implicit & implied (what org stands for/wants to be seen)
  • Eg.
    • Come in late → Individualism
    • Rewards for achievement → competitive
• Assumptions: Core assumptions & beliefs about reality and about how to get things done
  • Eg.
    • Come in late → individualism → Every man is his own master
    • Rewards for achievement → competitive → Survival of the fittest

• U.S. origin: experiences w/ Japanese organizations
• Shared sense of loyalty = high quality + high quantity output
• Focus on social dimensions of structures
  • Eg. social interaction b/t members

Understanding how culture is created and sustained

• Culture is:
  • Systems of shared meaning
  • Structured & learned
  • Material & Symbolic

Clifford Geertz

(Def.) Detailed study of a group to describe its behavior, characteristics, cultural norms, etc.

• Uses observations to understand:
  • Why do ppl think they are?
  • Why do they think they are doing?
  • Whar are they doing it?
• Eg. Halloween vs. Dia de Los Muertos

• (Def) intertwined layers of meaning (not just bare facts, but contextual info too)

Eg.

• Thin description: a wink
• Thick description: meaning behind wink & its symbolic importance btwn communications
  • Flirtatious, conspiracy

• How imaginative language is used (metaphors)
• Nonverbal rites & rituals
• Stories that are told (Narratives)

Focus on 1 and 3

Narratives --> employee's role in the company

• 3 types:
  • Corporate Stories: reinforce management ideology & compan policy (Eg. This is the place where dreams come true)
  • Personal Stories:  Told by employees about themselves (Eg. I'm actually a really laidback manager as long as my employees are reliable)
    • Goal: create favorable opinion
  • Collegial Stories: Pos/neg anecdotes told about others in org. (Eg. He's a terrible manager)
    • More accurate picture of what's really going on

• Goal: to better understand what is required to function effectively in particular orgn. culture
  • Must avoid simplistic interpretations/conclusion

• Criticisms:
• No evaluation or change of customs
  • Focus on description & interpretations only
• Success of ethnographic analysis/description depends on vivid language & prose
  • How clearly ideas are conveyed makes all the difference