A) Stage I:  Observing Communication Phenomena

            1. Specifying the observational domain

            2. Selecting interpretive schemes

             3.  Determining relationships

B) Stage II:  Discovering Theoretical Explanations

           1.  The nature of theory

           2.  Causal and teleological explanation:  Laws and rules

           3.  The logic of discovering theories

               a.  A data-to-theory (inductive) approach

               b.  A theory-to-data (deductive) approach                                                    

C) Stage III:  Verifying Theoretical Explanations

           1.  Testing theoretical predictions

           2.  Criteria for evaluating theories

  1.  Its objects are observable
           -if they are not observable than it is not

             within  the domain of science
           -cannot question faith or belief
2.  Its objects are orderly
          -  things don’t happen in random times
3.  Its objects are explainable
           - they can be understtod in ter

1.  It is systematic
        - takes a methodical approach to discovery
2.  It is rational
         -  justification
          - follows the rules of logic
3.  It is self-correcting
         -if we did all the theory we have to go out and               test that theory and then if the theory is                      opposite from our obsevation we have to                     correct it.
       -Helps us to be self correctred
4.  It is self-reflexive
5.  It is creative

-We often think that scientists operate at two levels
-Scientists think in concepts, but often test their              thoughts in a world of numbers
               -Bounce back and fourth
- Bridging the two worlds is a three step process    (“theoretical/physical” diagram)
            -How do you observe theoretical concepts in a                 physical manner?
•    Operational definitions
•    Observe in physical world
•    indicators
          -More people buying a product indicate an                       attitude change
         -Feed information back into theoretical world

A) Consists of a set of propositions
      -A proposition is a statement relating two                  theoretical hypotheses (or concepts)
B) Propositions are Interrelated
       -- Deduction

         -- the process by which certain         known        propositions make other unknown propositions follow logically, or both logically & empirically
•    1) logical deduction
    with limited specification, the deduction may not hold logically.
    either definitive or probabilistic
    problems of logical deduction
            2) logical and empirical deduction
a)    allows testing of abstract theories
b)    problems of logical & empirical
    the match between the concept and the variable may be poor
•    2) logical and empirical deduction
o    a)  allows testing of abstract theories
o    b) problmes of logical and empirical
•    the match between the concept and the variable may be poor
EX: as sentiment increases hugging increases

1. covariation -- both variables change together
2. time order -- cause precedes effect in time
3. nonspuriousness -- cannot be explained by other causes

4 Criteria for Evaluation
         1. tap the richness of the concept
         2. allow for standardization through concreteness
         3. allow for replication
         4. match the concept with a good numerical scale
     •    nominal
                o    discrete
                o    not good
     •    ordinal
                o    3rd best
     •    interval
                o    2nd best
      •    ratio
                o    BEST numerical scale

A)  Rationalism
          -assumption the world has a logical structure
B)  Rational Empiricism
          -you must test your thoughts with observations
C)  Mechanistic Empiricism
        - Cause and effect
         - Knowledge begins with observation

D)  Logical Positivism
E)  Constructivism
F)  Constructive Realism

A)  The Laws Approach
       1.  Types of laws
                  -natural necessity law
                             -gravity
                  -logical positive laws
                            -try to explain things by looking                                   at  correlations
                            -avoid the concept of causality
         2.  The current status of communication laws
B)  The Rules Perspective
         1.  Types of teleological explanation
                    -might try to explain human behaviour                            by motivating goals
                            -intentional behavoiur
                   -the motivating goals explain        

                     human  behaviour.
                   - Teleonomic script rule
                         •    “hey how ya doin?”
                         •    communicative scripts are                                            embedded in our brain
                         •    our behaviour runs it course
                         •    script has motivating goal                                             built  into it.
                                     -You want to be perceived as                                          polite
                                     - you can violate the rule                                       but then you would be impolite
         2.  The current status of communication rules

A) based on deductive logic as in the logical syllogism
•    if A then B if B then C therefore, if A then C

B) five basic properties
        1. Causality - all phenomena are seen in terms  of

             because and effect
        2. Universality - laws are invariant in time                        and space.
        3. Linearity - causes linked linearly to effects
        4. variables must be quantifiable
        5. relationships are deterministic

C) Positive characteristics
       -strong logical
       -it has been the dominant view in science

        for a  while
             -not so much in communication
             -an advantage because it has allowed scholars               to develop a strong set of methods and                          statistical techniques
                     -widely agreed upon
                             -good because it allows us to build                                 confidence

D) Negative characteristics
      - too reductionistic
             -misses the interrelationship among  the                     parts it is studying
      - futile to look for laws that govern human                    behaviour

A) Developed from free will criticism
    - "rule" is belief that there are correct ways of                   behaving
    - explains our expectations of other's social behavior        regularity
    - "rule" denotes regularities in communication                  resulting from our interpretation of social actions
    - behavior is often intentional and guided by                        rules (not determined)

B) Two classes of behavior
        1. S-R  governed by determinism and explained                by Covering Laws
        2. Intentional, governed by free choice and                        explained by rules

C) Positive and Negative characteristics

-Assumes human have no ore free will than inatimate   objects
-Everything is pre determined by forcdes out of our control

o    Situational and social forces determine the choices we make
o    People make choices within boundaries
          •    The situation that person is in

1.  Communication as a social reality
2.  Communication as a creative process
3.  Communication as a developmental process
          o    changes over time
4.  Communication as a complex system
          o    ideas get more complex as you get older
5.  Communication as a contextual phenomenon
          o    ideas have different contexts over time
6.  Communication as a purposive activity
           o    if I have purposeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
7.  Communication as an interactive reality
8.  Communication as an orderly process
           o    hold up – is free will an orderly process?
           o    This is a problem with people who begin                         with the assumption of free will
•    Though we make choices, we follow established patterns of meaning that are shared with others; to promote our individual and social goals

1.  Specifying the observational domain
          -there are so may parts of COM process that no              one person could every study that much to                     know all of it.

2.  Selecting interpretive schemes
3.  Determining relationships
           -start by developing a model and then use

Stage I:  Observing Communication Phenomena

Stage II:  Discovering Theoretical Explanations

Stage III:  Verifying Theoretical Explanations

Denote essential qualities
       -Identifying all parts of the concept and the                    relationship between these parts
        -Does the definition tell us what all the component            parts of the concept are?
         -Explaining relationship

Not circular
Clear and precise

     -Use primitive terms
     -A good def should very clearly identify the                     boundaries of the concepts
Complete
      -Does not apply to  a single concept

-- Consists of a set of propositions

-- The propositions are interrelated

-- Some propositions are empirically testable

1. descriptive representations of the relations put forth          in  a theory
2. help us visualize abstract theories and causal                   processes
 3. help in prediction, but offer no explanation
          -- this limits ability to use for control

-- tests that establish empirical validity can increase confidence
-- a theory should be falsifiable -- it should tell us what will not happen
     -if X happens, my theory is wrong
           -if your theory cannot be disproved, why would             you even test it?
-- a theory should tell its underlying assumptions  -- conditions where it fails

1.  Self-report sources of data
2.  Behavioral sources of data
3.  Physiological sources of data

a. graphic -- bipolar descriptions along a line of other       visual
b. itemized - select one of several specific categories/numbers
c. comparative - compare object to some external standard