Term
| What does the term 'cognition' mean? |
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Definition
| Refers to mental processes in the brain that we need to make sense of the world. Cognitive Psychologists believe this influences our behaviour. |
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Term
| Give 4 examples of the mental processes we need to make sense of the world. |
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Definition
1. Perception
2. Memory
3. Language
4. Attention |
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Term
| Give an assumption of the cognitive approach. |
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Definition
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Term
| Explain the 4 main ideas of an assumption of the cognitive approach. |
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Definition
1. Computer Analogy states that
'the human mind is like a computer'
2. We form neural networks just like a computer forms networks
3. We can use the information processing model to explain our behaviour ( input-> process -> output).
4. An example of how the computer functions like our brain using the information processing model follows:
input= Type information using keyboard
process= It encodes the data and stores on harddrive
output= The computer prints off the data |
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Term
| Explain the general details that distinguish a laboratory experiment. |
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Definition
It's conducted under highly controlled conditions
The independent variable is directly manipulated by the researcher to allow and firm cause and effect to be established
It's an artificial environment because of this. |
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Term
| Give an advantage of using a laboratory experiment. |
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Definition
High reliability because:
- All conditions are controlled (standardised procedure used)
- All extraneous variables are eradicated
...so it's easy to repeat and get similar results. |
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Term
| Give 3 disadvantages of using a laboratory experiment. |
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Definition
1. Demand Characteristics- participants may be aware of experiment because of artificial conditions and may change their behaviour.(This affects results, making them unreliable)
2. Low ecological validity-The controlled variables and tightly controlled conditions make the setting artificial, and therefore doesn't represent real life situations well.
3. Experimenter effects- the experimenter's behaviour or expectations may influence the participant's behaviour eg. A woman asking a man about his attitudes towards women. |
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Term
| Explain the general details that distinguish a field experiment. |
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Definition
The independent variable is manipulated but it's done so to reflect the environment typical of the behaviour studied.
It's in a natural environment, eg. Nurses in a hospital. |
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Term
| Give 2 advantages of using a field experiment. |
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Definition
1. Less likely to get demand characteristics-Participants may not be aware of experiment because of the natural setting they are usually in.
2. High ecological validity- the natural environment reflects real life. |
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Term
| Give 3 disadvantages of using a field experiment. |
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Definition
1. No control over the environment, allows extraneous variables to affect results, giving it low validity.
2. Time consuming and difficult to set up.
3. Participants don't have the right to withdraw or neither have they given consent as they aren't necessarily aware of being in a study so there are ethical issues. |
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Term
| Explain the general details that distinguish a natural experiment. |
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Definition
It's in a natural environment, the independent variable isn't manipulated directly by the researcher.
The researcher takes advantage of a naturally occurring situation eg. Volcano, other natural disaster. |
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Term
| Give 2 advantages of using a natural experiment. |
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Definition
1. High ecological validity- data is collected under natural conditions so reflects the natural conditions.
2. More ethical- the situation is occurring regardless of the researcher's presence. |
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Term
| Give 2 disadvantages of using a natural experiment. |
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Definition
1. No/Hardly any control over type of participants and extraneous variables can effect results- low reliability.
2. Hard to find as it tends to be a unique situation eg. volcano. |
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Term
| What is an experimental hypothesis? |
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Definition
| A statement about the predicted outcome of a study, based on a theory and research. |
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Term
| What two types of experimental hypothesis are there? And what is the difference between them? |
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Definition
1. Directional/One tailed- the direction of results can be predicted, and what direction.
2. Non-directional/Two tailed- a change is predicted, but not what direction. |
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Term
| What's a null hypothesis? |
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Definition
| A statement that the results will be due to chance and not the theory, this is tested in the experiment to disprove. |
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Term
| Name the three types of participant design. |
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Definition
1. Repeated measures design
2. Independent measures design
3. Matched pairs design |
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Term
| Give the definition of a repeated measures design. |
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Definition
The same participants are used in all experimental conditions.
It can cause order effects. |
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Term
| Give the definition of a matched pairs design. |
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Definition
| Same as independent but all participants are matched on a quality or characteristic eg. IQ level. |
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Term
| Give the definition of a independent measures design. |
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Definition
| Only one of the experimental conditions is tested on one group of participants. |
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Term
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Definition
There's two effects:
Practise & Fatigue
They can worsen or enhance a participant's performance, affecting the reliability of the results.
Can be overcome by randomising or counterbalancing. |
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Term
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Definition
| Participants are divided equally between the conditions, so they experience the conditions in a different order. This means the condition is not the same for every participant, so they are not always tired on one condition, and had lots of practise on the other. Systematic approach. |
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Term
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Definition
| Participants divided between conditions by randomly picking names out of a hat. ( Similar to counterbalancing). |
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Term
| What's an independent variable? |
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Definition
| The variable that's manipulated to show a difference between experimental conditions. |
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Term
| What's a dependent variable? |
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Definition
| The variable that's measured- it's the result of the experiment. |
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Term
| What's operationalisation? |
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Definition
| Stating how you intend to measure the Dependent variable, and alter the conditions for the Independent variable. |
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Term
| Name three types of variables and their definitions. |
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Definition
1.Participant-the participant's characteristics can affect the reliability of results eg. Highly motivated, good mood etc.
2.Situational-Variable found in environment eg. Weather, background noise, lighting, temperature etc.
3.Extraneous-any variable except the Independent variable that affects the findings. |
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Term
| What's experimenter effects? |
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Definition
| The attitudes, appearance or gender can influence results. Eg. a woman asking a man on their attitudes towards women. |
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Term
| What's ecological validity? |
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Definition
| How well a study represents a natural situation. |
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Term
| What's demand characteristics? |
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Definition
| Participant changes behaviour because the aim of the study is know. Affects reliability of the results. |
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Term
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Definition
| How well something measures what it's intended to measure. |
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Term
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Definition
| This is achieved when a study is repeated and the same results are found. |
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Term
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Definition
| Unbiased judgment of data. |
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Term
| What theory did Craik & Lockhart propose, and what year? |
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Definition
| The levels of processing theory in 1972. |
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Term
| What does the levels of processing theory propose? |
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Definition
-We all have a central processor that handles perceptual information and determines how it's processed.
-The deeper the processing, the more likely it'll be stored in the memory system and a more durable memory will be achieved.
-If the perceptual information is distinctive or relavent it's more likely to be processed at a deeper level than something meaningless. |
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Term
| What does the levels of processing theory propose about maintenance rehearsal? |
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Definition
Maintanence- Rehearsing allows us to maintain information for a short amount of time
-Unlikely to result in a strong memory |
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Term
| What does the levels of processing theory propose about elaborative rehearsal? |
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Definition
Elaborative rehearsal involves giving the information meaning, by giving a semantic attachment.
-More likely to form a durable memory. |
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Term
| What's the 2 advantages of the Levels of processing theory? |
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Definition
1. Wide applications- can aid learning and revision by teaching pupils to make semantic links with their work.
2. Covers the type of memory stored by explain memory strength by referring to depth of processing. |
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Term
| What's the 4 disadvantages of the levels of processing theory? |
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Definition
1. Other variable eg. time spent learning affect memory strength.
2. Descriptive- doesn't explain what depth is.
3. Referring to depth is circular logic.
4. Doesn't account for all learning- imagery and emotionality also leave strong memories. |
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Term
| Who theory did Atkinson & Shiffrin propose, and what year? |
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Definition
| The Multi store Model, in 1968 |
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Term
| What does the multi store model propose? |
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Definition
Describes memory as 3 stores:
-sensory: stores fragile sensory information for 1-3 seconds until we decide to give it attention.
-short-term: Stores 7+-2 bits of information for 18-30 seconds, it's a limited store and rehearsal is used to maintain information increasing it's chance of going into...
Long-term: Potentially infinite capacity, can hold information from a couple of mins to many years. |
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Term
| What's the 2 advantages of the multi store model? |
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Definition
1. Many theories support it eg. recency and primary effect.
2. Influential- generated lots of research into memory. |
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Term
| How does the primary effect support the multi store model? |
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Definition
| -The first things we remember enters short term memory and is rehearsed first and transfered into long term before the short term capacity was reached. |
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Term
| How does the recency effect support the multi store model? |
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Definition
| -The last things we remember go into short term memory and isn't displaced by anything else. |
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Term
| What's the 2 disadvantages of the multi store model? |
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Definition
1. Rehearsal is not always needed to remember info-we don't always rehearse info yet we still manage to remember.
2. Oversimplified-Assumes there's only one short and long term store however evidence from brain damaged patients suggests there's multiple different stores, making it a linear model. |
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Term
| Name a theory of forgetting. |
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Definition
| The cue dependent theory of forgetting, includes Tulvings encoding specificity principle, 1974 |
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Term
| Explain the Cue dependent theory of forgetting. |
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Definition
-Explains forgetting as an accessibility problem. (Cannot retrieve memory until correct cue used).
-When we encode a memory, we also encode extra information around the memory eg. feelings, environment.
-We forget when we're in a different context or state. |
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Term
| Explain Tulving's encoding specificity principle, (associated with the cue dependent theory of forgetting). |
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Definition
| The greater the similarity between the encoding and retrieval event, the greater the likelihood of recalling the original memory. eg. encoding a happy childhood memory means we're more likely to remember the event when we're happy again. |
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Term
| What is a noticeable experience of cue dependent forgetting? |
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Definition
| The Tip of the tongue phenomenom- Brown and McNeil, 1966. Refers to knowing a memory exists but being temporarily unable to recall. |
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Term
| Give the 3 advantages of cue dependent forgetting theory. |
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Definition
1. Anecdotal evidence- we all experience knowing something but not being able to recall.
2. Godden and Baddeley 1975, support this theory with their results.(recall 50% higher when learning in the same environment as retrieval)
3.100's of studies concluded that cues are a powerful aid to memory |
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Term
| Give 2 disadvantages of cue dependent forgetting theory. |
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Definition
1. The anecdotal accounts are hard to study so we rely on experiments which are unrealistic.
2. In godden and baddeleys experiment, their results affected by lack of experimental control so results are unreliable to make a conclusion. |
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Term
| Explain the two cues from the due dependent forgetting theory. |
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Definition
Context cue: being in the same environment as learning aids recall.
State cue: being in the same mood as learning aids recall. |
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Term
| Name another theory of forgetting apart from Tulving's. |
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Definition
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Term
| Explain the Trace decay theory. |
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Definition
-Learning causes physical change in neural network(forms memory trace/engram).
-Memory must be reinforced through repetition to strengthen (or it'll weaken and decay-how forgetting occurs).
-Happens in short-term memory as it's got a limited capacity.
-Requires significant structural change in long-term |
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Term
| Give the advantage of trace decay theory. |
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Definition
| Peterson & Peterson's study supports it- 90% of information was forgotten after 18 seconds of NO rehearsal. |
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Term
| Give the 2 disadvantages of the trace decay theory. |
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Definition
1. Cannot see the trace-hard to prove
2. Difficult to test-no new info can be presented between learning and recall to prevent interference. |
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Term
| When did godden and baddeley conduct their experiment? |
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Definition
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Term
| What was godden and baddeleys experiment called? |
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Definition
| The context-dependent memory experiment. |
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Term
| What was the aim of godden and baddeley's experiment? |
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Definition
| To investigate whether a natural environment can act as a cue for recall. |
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Term
| How many participants where picked in godden and baddeleys experiment and where from? |
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Definition
| 18, from the University diving club. |
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Term
| How many words were the participants made to learn in godden and baddeleys experiment |
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Definition
| 38 unrelated words (2-3 syllables in length) |
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Term
| How many conditions were in godden and baddeleys experiment, and what were they? |
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Definition
4 conditions:
land and land
land and water
water and water
water and land |
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Term
| How were the participants allocated to the conditions in godden and baddeleys experiment? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where did the experiment take place in godden and baddeleys experiment? |
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Definition
| In Scotland but two divers were made to dive in a freshwater site nearby for technical reasons. |
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Term
| In godden and baddeleys experiment, how long did it take to do? |
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Definition
| 4 days, with a 24 hour delay and scheduled dive to ensure all participants are in the same and wet and cold state as they did all conditions. |
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Term
| In godden and baddeleys experiment, how long was the list presented and to how many people? |
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Definition
| The participants were tested 2 at a time, shown the list twice and after the 4 minute delay had to right the list in 2 minutes. |
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Term
| What were the results of godden and baddeleys experiment? |
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Definition
Recall was 50% higher when it took place in the same environment as learning.
Mean results:
land and land: 13.6
land and water: 8.6
water and land: 8.4
water and water: 11.4 |
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Term
| What's the conclusion of godden and baddeleys experiment? |
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Definition
| Environment can act as a cue for recall. |
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Term
| Give the 3 advantages of godden and baddeleys experiment. |
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Definition
1. Realistic open water environment for divers-high ecological validity as it can be generalised to real life.
2.Participants were the research scientists and tested in pairs-unlikely to have cheated.
3.Could be used in schools to improve recall by doing examinations in the same context as learning. |
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Term
| Give the 4 disadvantages of godden and baddeleys experiment. |
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Definition
1. Lack of experimental control-diving location, standardisation etc.
2. Cheating is a possibility.
3. Participants that didn't change environments could rehearse more.
4.Participants who changed environments could experienced interference in memory. |
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Term
| When was the level of processing experiment conducted, and by who? |
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Definition
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Term
| What's the aim of the level of processing experiment? |
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Definition
| To test the level of processing theory by investigating whether words processed at different levels (semantic, phonetically and structurally) would affect recognition of those words. |
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Term
| In the level of processing experiment, how many participants were there? |
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Definition
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Term
| How many words in the level of processing experiment were the participants shown and what did the questions that followed require? |
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Definition
| 60 words ( shown via tachistoscope), the questions required structural, phonetic and semantic processing. |
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Term
| In the level of processing experiment, how many words were added to the list of 60? |
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Definition
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Term
| What were the results of the level of processing experiment? |
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Definition
17% of words recognised were processed structurally
36% were processed phonetically.
65% were processed semantically. |
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Term
| What's the conclusion of the level of processing experiment? |
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Definition
-The deeper the processing, the greater recognition.
-Recognition was greater for words processed semantically
-This supports the levels of processing theory. |
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Term
| Give 2 advantages of the level of processing experiment. |
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Definition
1. Craik and Tulving didn't inform the participants that they would have to recognise the words later(no demand characteristics were made).
2. Standardised procedure ensured reliable results. |
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Term
| Give 2 disadvantages of the level of processing experiment. |
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Definition
1. We wouldn't normally learn lists on a day to day basis so the procedure is unrealistic and thus lacks ecological validity.
2. The study ignored the role of imagery and emotion that are often associated with long lasting memories. |
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