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| (knowing that) memories which can be consciously recalled such as facts and events |
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| specific personal experiences |
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| (knowing how) memory for how to do things. resides below the level of conscious awareness. long-term implicit memory |
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| newly learned information interferes with and impedes the recall of previously learned information |
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| past memories inhibit an individuals full potential to retain new memories |
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| stored memory is intact but unable to be retreived due to compitition created by newly acquired information |
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| memorize information by walking around a garden or building in the minds eye and placing cues around the space |
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| memory loss due to traumatic injury |
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| memories closest to the traumatic incident are more likely to be forgotten then more remote memories |
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| participants were taught a new fact about a well known historical figure. later experimenters would describe an actual fact, a new fact or a false fact. they measured the time it took for the participant to identify if the fact was true or false. the time it took to identify as true or false increased with the number of new facts learned-> new facts create competition |
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| Three levels of Human cognition |
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1) subjective experience of our own minds
2) the computaitional or functional analysis of mental representations and processes (regardless to ther relations to consciosuness)
3) the neural substrate [underlying elements] of these |
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| why NOT introspective reports |
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1) of little use in analyzing how we preform practiced skills
2) provide at best partical/ at worst misleading info about |
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graphemes represent phonemes (not always transparently)
ex. greek, english, hebrew, arabic |
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graphemes represent syllables
ex. japanese kana, korean, mongolian |
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graphemes represent meaning units
ex. japanese kanji, chinese |
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| where, when and how long the eyes fixate during reading |
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| parallel comparison model |
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| simulated by a computer -> enforce precision and enables prediction |
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1) feature theories- no one feature is needed only a sufficient combination
2) computing resemblance of object to a prototype
3) instance theories: resemblance of new objects to previously experienced instances
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| categorize the (previously unseen) prototype faster than previously seen instances and stands the passage of time better |
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| having a distracting tasks between learning list and recall |
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| vivid memories of emotionally salient events |
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| persistence of visual information beyond the stimulus (<1 second) |
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| retro-active interference |
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| recall strongly dependent on the amount of similar information encoded |
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| major reasons for forgetting |
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1) failure initially to encode the information deeply or elaborately
2) disruption of process of consolidating the memory trace
3) associative interference at retrieval
4) mismatch between the context of encoding and retrieval |
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| processing the meaning of information instead of just the surface form/features |
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| learning a second response to the same cue was particularly productive of "retroactive interference" |
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| state dependent learning. increase in recall when context is the same at acquisition and test |
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| 'recall'/'recognise' events that one did not experience |
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| the intent behind what people say (ie to request info, to provide info, to insult, to complement, etc.) |
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| many spoken/ written words have more then one dictionary meaning so one must decide which is intended (ie. bank, right) |
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| retrieve all meanings for each word and see what fits best with the meanings of the previous words |
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| retrieve only the meanings most related to prior context and try another if it doesn't fit |
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| ambiguous sentence structure |
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| solving logical or mathematical problems when there is a right answer |
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| making probabilistic/ statistical generalizations predictions or inferring general rules from available data (ie. experience) |
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| how to get from start to end goal via intermediate states, in states where there maybe many ways to get to the goal but some ways are better than others (ie tower of hanoi) |
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| specialized for a specific kind of inferencing important to our evolutionary history, casual inferencing about physical and biological environment and detecting violations of social rules |
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| estimation of frequency baed on experience- estimates are contaminated b/c of factors other than frequency (ie. R and K as first or third letter) |
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people judge the probability/ frequency of a hypothesis by concidering how much the hypothesis resembles available data as opposed to calculations (ex. laid back, long hair= cali)
assume similarity in one area leads to similarities in other aspects |
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imagined concrete examples
- conform to the premises and get to conclusions by testing against the model
-may not capture the full range of possibilities |
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| having two streams of different sounds pled one in each ear |
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| pay attention to all but one source of stimulus |
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| attempt to pay attention to multiple stimuli (poor comprehension) |
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| anticipate a stimulus and focus our attention there |
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| mechanism for holding in mind, in an active , highly available state a small amount of information |
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| ability to retain sensory information after the original stimulus has ended |
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| a system for permanently storing, managing and retrieving information for later use. items may be available for a lifetime |
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| it is easier to remember more recent information then older information |
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| retrieval after a short interval mediated by temporary rapidly decaying trace; retrieval after longer interval mediated by a more permanent trace |
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| trace decays rapidly to start with, then more slowly |
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| neuropsychological dissociations |
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| normal working memory but little or no ability to commit new facts/events to permanent memory |
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| identified and represented in a limited capacity short term store |
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| previously learned information prevents the acquisition of new information |
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| retrieval of information coupled with the inability to remember its source |
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| fragments of actual experience recovered from memory get combined with other information in memory whose source is lost |
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| body language, eye movement, etc |
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