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| different types of results that imply the same conclusion; key to proving concepts |
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| to establish that an activity or variable affects the performance of one task but not of another. Evidence of a specific process. |
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| an activity or variable affects one process but not another and a second activity or variable has the reverse properties. Proves the existence of two distinct processes. |
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| occurs when the effects of an activity or variable on one task are accompanied by the effects on another task. Common processes are being affected. |
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| Hypothetico- deductive method |
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| Sensory and motor nerves are anatomically and functionally discrete |
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| Discovered reflexes by playing with dead frogs' spinal cords. |
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| used "galvanic stimulation" (electrical stimulation) of the brain to create movement |
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| Autonomic function: breathing, HR, BP |
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| relays sensory info to the brain. Helps in breathing |
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| coordinates repeated movements: walking |
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| could only say "tan." Had a legion in the left cerebral hemisphere. Discovered by Paul Broca= Broca's area |
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| speech center in the left cerebral hemisphere |
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| searched for the memory center. Proposed the principles of equipotentiality and mass action |
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| trained animals to complete a task and tested them at it. Then, he lacerated their brains. Then he retested them at the task. Found that the area of the damage didn't matter, only the size of the cut |
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| all parts of the brain work together and losing a part, proportionally diminishes its efficiency |
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| one part of the cortex is just as good as another for memory |
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| Wilder Penfield. Worked with patients with epilepsy, found that seizures usually originate from one part of the brain, depending on the individual |
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| found the speed of a nerve impulse was about 50 meters per second. |
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| used mental chronometry to test patients |
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| measures reaction time in experiments in order to make inferences about processes |
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| rotating an object in the mind. The greater the degree of rotation, the longer it tends to take |
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| introspection and mental chronometry. First psych lab |
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| Introspection (and problems) |
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| patients tell the researcher how they feel. Problems: variability, verification and reliance on conscious processes (ignores the unconscious/ subconscious processes) |
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| Behaviorism (and problems) |
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| relies on observable behavior. ignores cognitive processes, such as, creativity, beliefs and language |
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| Inverse problem (2 parts) |
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| its possible to derive a specific perception from a stimulus. Its not possible to derive a specific stimulus from a perception (many stimuli can lead to the same perception) |
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1) Retinal image: upside down and backwards; rods and cones. Sends info to brain thru the optic nerve
2) Primary visual cortex (V1): arrives via the thalamus (LGN) |
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| migraine caused by a spasm behind the eye |
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| damage to VI that leads to diminished vision |
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| visual loss in one side of the visual field, caused by damage to one of the hemispheres |
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| loss of one quarter of the visual field |
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| loss of color vision due to cortical damage. Leads to a "grey" world. Patients eventually forget what color is |
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| motion blindness. Caused by damage to the middle temporal cortex. See a series of still images. |
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| patient can see and describe objects, but don't know their names |
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| difficulty recognizing faces. Patients know they are looking at a face, but don't know whose. Caused by damage to the "fusiform face area" |
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| patient can't see an object, but can reach out and grasp it |
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| Charles Bonnet syndrome (and cause) |
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| amusing and magical visions (happy hallucinations). Caused by degeneration of the eye |
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| caused by activity in some part of the brain that quickly spreads. |
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| precursor to a seizure. Allows researchers to pin point the seizure's origin |
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| people can experience hallucinations when they lack sensory information, such as in a "white out" snow storm |
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| failure to detect small changes between two images. |
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| like a slideshow, that moves at a rate of 1 slide per 200 milliseconds. It involves overlaying a distractor over the target image, to see if the subject is aware of the target. Investigates subliminal perception |
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| revealed the Mere Exposure Effect |
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| people tend to prefer that which is perceptually familiar, even if the original stimulus was subliminal |
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| subject puts hand out of sight, and a rubber hand is placed in front of him. The researcher strokes both the rubber hand and hidden hand simultaneously. After a while, the subject believes the rubber hand is theirs |
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| discovered the "readiness potential." An impulse that occurs just before a person makes a decision |
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| Models of object recognitino |
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template matching
feature matching
recognition by coding
configural
predictive coding theory |
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| the brain makes predictions about the world. New sensory data is then processed. If the prediction is wrong, an error signal, proportionate to how incorrect the prediction is, arises. Then the prediction is revised |
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| neurons that release dopamine when the subject expects positive reinforcement. But, when no "reward" is presented, the firing diminishes |
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| an animal's reflexive response to a change in the environment. Exogenously (externally) controlled |
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| the ability to attend to a stimulus without shifting one's gaze. Endogenously (internally) controlled |
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| did Dichotic Listening tests |
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| different spoken input is played into either ear. Subjects were told to listen to only one side but usually would switch between in order to follow the natural speech, as the inputs would trade between either ear during the course of the test |
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| Broadbent's filter theory |
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Input--- Detection--- Filter--- Recognition
An "early selection" model
Selection occurs at the filter |
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| if one's name is uttered within the din of the party, even if the person isn't paying attention, they will usually hear their name--- attention is somewhat exogenously (externally) controlled |
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Input--- Detection--- Recognition--- Filter
Recognition occurs before unnecessary information is filtered out |
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| Treisman's Leaky filter theory |
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Input--- Attenuator--- Dictionary
The attenuator adds or subtracts power to different signals depending on importance |
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| Posner's spatial cueing task |
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| the longer the time between the cue and target (SOA), the quicker the response time (RT). |
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| jumps of eye-movements between fixation points |
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1) Engage= begin attending to new stimulus
2) Disengage= stop attending to what is being attend to
3) Move= refocus "spotlight" on a new target |
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| damage to the right hemisphere leads to a loss of attention to the left side of the visual field |
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| Neglect patients have difficulty... |
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| disengaging from the good side to move to the neglected field |
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two sides have a conversation and the subject tries to guess if they are talking to a person or a computer.
Objective sign of intelligence |
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| A physical state that stands for an object, event or concept. Carries information |
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| Formats of representation |
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1) Mental imagery
2) Feature records
3) Amodal symbols |
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| the brain holds images within memory. Specific to one spatiotemporal setting |
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when an important, specific feature of an object is recognized, a group of neurons fire, alerting the subject of the feature's existence. The more of the feature present, the more neural firings.
Feature detecting neurons are task dependent |
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| describe the properties of and relations among meaningful entities in a scene. Matched to language. ex. when the word "candle" is heard, an amodal symbol for "candle" in the brain activates so the individual knows what a "candle" is |
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| Stanfield + Zwaan (2001) study |
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| people take longer to respond to an image that doesn't align with its description |
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| active whenever a set of features are simultaneously activated. Associate different features together |
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| no matter how many symbols exist, they are meaningless without real-world definitions |
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| re-experiencing an event, or object, within the brain. Occurs across whatever modalities originally perceived the information |
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| the region of the visual field in which a stimulus will affect the activity of the cell |
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| a set of 24 relatively simple geometrical three- dimensional shapes that can be combined to represent many objects |
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| Center-surrounding (antagonism) |
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subtractive interactions between the center and surrounding areas of the visual field that allow for edge detection.
The center of the field excites the ganglion cells, while the surrounding area inhibits them |
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| a visual pathway from the occipital lobes to the bottom parts of the temporal lobes that processes information that leads to the recognition of objects |
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| a visual pathway from the occipital lobes to the parietal lobes, which processes spatial information, such as where items are located |
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| how do we combine a series of features into one perceived object? Conjunctive neurons. |
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| a contour that is not physically present in the stimulus but is filled in by the visual system |
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Early vs late selection
Broadbent's filter theory |
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| responsible for the coordination of mental activity |
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| if an experimental task is too simple, no difference will be seen in responses |
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| if an experimental task is too difficult, no differences will be seen among responses |
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| errors rise as response times go down |
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| the influence of the investigator on the participant's responses |
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| aspects of the task itself that participants believe require them to respond in a particular way |
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models that rely on sets of interconnected units, each of which is intended to correspond to a neuron or a small group of neurons.
3 layers:
1) Input= a set of units that receives stimulation from the environment
2) Hidden= units that connect the input layer to the output layer
3) Output= layer that leads to the response |
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| the decrease in performance in reporting a second piece of information if it appears within a certain period of time after the appearance of a first piece of information |
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| the failure to detect the subsequent appearance of a stimulus when stimuli are presented in a rapid sequnce |
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| Spotlight theory (also limitations) |
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attention is like a spotlight that focuses on one stimulus at a time.
Too simple an explanation, a competitive system, in which tuning into one stimulus, diminishes another is a better explanation |
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| Biased-Competition theory (of attention) |
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| proposes that objects compete for cortical representation in a mutually inhibitory network; competition is biased in favor of the attended item. |
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| the facilitation of processing a stimulus or task by a preceding stimulus or task |
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| when attention is directed toward an object, all parts of the object are simultaneously selected for processing |
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| a population of conjunction neurons that associates feature information |
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| a structured representation that captures the information typically true for a situation or event |
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| individual category members |
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| the collection of properties most likely to be true of members of a category |
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| in categorization, a precise definition of the criteria for a category |
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