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| Proposed explanation of a phenomena. Based on facts, must test with predictions. |
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| Prediction from a theory. |
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| Detailed study of one person, group, animal, or event. Get info from observation, interviews, questionnaires, news, reports, tests, and archival data. |
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| 1. Source of ideas (use at the start of investigating a topic) i.e. Leon Festinger "When Prophecy Fails" led to cognitive dissonance theory. 2. Can make up a detailed picture of a person (A. Laura's Mind of a Mneumonist)3. Good for unusual cases (genetics, restored vision) 4. Can provide clues to normal behavior (Phineas Gage, H.M. divisions of memory, AJ's autobiographical memory). |
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| Case study reports can include these 8 pieces of background information |
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| Family history, diaries, eduation, job history, medical and psychological history, behavioral history, recollection tests, neuropsychological tests. |
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| Unobtrusive measures such as archival data. |
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| Finding out self reported attitudes, opinions, and behaviors of a population of people usually by questioning a representative sample of them. |
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| 1. Get information fast. Groups of subjects can be tested. Easy to administer, less researcher training. 2. Can track behavior over time 3. Can make predictions that are valid within certain limits. |
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| 1. Wording of questions (Unambiguous, scales need to be worked out, memory lapses, intentional deception, wishful thinking, don't know how one would act. 3. Correlational evidence (correlation does not equal causation) |
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| 1. Can't control extraneous variables 2. Observer bias 3. May not be representative of the population. |
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| All the people in the group of interest. |
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| Individuals selected from the population. |
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| Each member of a population has an equal chance of bein selected. Can select a sample based on certain characteristics (sex, race, religion, IQ) |
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| Naturalistic observation advantages |
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| See how behavior really occurs, which increases ecological validity (do results apply to real life) 2. Good for coming up with ideas |
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| Problems with Naturalistic Observation |
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| You don't know which variables are important, it's difficult not to influence behavior. |
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| Researcher manipulates one or more variables under carefully controlled conditions and observes changes in behavioral or mental processes. |
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| A concept that is defined by the way it is measured (Recall vs. recognition). |
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| Amount of time less or repetitions fewer to re learn the same thing. |
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| There is no difference between the groups or relationship between the variables. Any difference is due to chance. |
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| An index of the strength of the relationship between variables. |
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| Potential problems with experiments |
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| Selection bias, results not generalizable, placebo effect, experimenter effect. |
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| An unintended difference between the conditions of a research design that could have affected the dependent variable. i.e. differences in personal history, differences in public history, maturation, sensitizing subjects, statistical regression, death, interactions of treatments, measuring instruments change. |
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| How to control for confounded variables |
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Definition
1. Remove them
2. Hold them constant for all groups
3. Make independent variables out of them. (ie Drug A then B and drug B then A)
4. Randomize subjects and procedures
5. Statistically adjust them |
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| Can validly draw cause and effect conclusions. |
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| Disadvantages to experiment |
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| Often expensive, often time-consuming, can be artificial. |
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| Quasi-Experimental studies |
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| studies of groups of subjects who have been exposed to the conditions of interest inthe real world. Have the appearance of experiments but have potentially confounding variable. |
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| Advantage of Quasi exxperimental study |
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| Can test some hypotheses that cannot be tested with experiments. |
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| Disadvantage of Quasi experimental studies |
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| Potentially confounding variables. |
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| Advantages and disadvantages of internet research |
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| Get a lot of subjects easily, fast, and cheap. However, they are self-selected subjects. |
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| Advantages and disadvantages of internet research |
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| Get a lot of subjects easily, fast, and cheap. However, they are self-selected subjects. |
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| Use of several research approaches to solve a single problem. Because every study has a weakness, and needs replication, use different types of studies! |
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| all intelligence is computational. So, consciousness can occur in a machine. |
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| Consciousness is a property of certain BRAIN processes, it cannot occur in a machine. |
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| Computer produced output that owuld be considered intelligent if produced by a human. |
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