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Cognitive Flashcards
Cognitive
70
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
03/29/2020

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

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Term
Sensation
Definition
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
Term
Perception
Definition
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
Term
Bottom-up processing
Definition
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
Term
Top-down processing
Definition
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
Term
Transduction
Definition
Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret
Term
Gestalt
Definition
An organized whole. Gestalt psychologists empasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
Term
Figure-ground
Definition
The organization of th evisual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)
Term
Grouping
Definition
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
Term
Depth perception
Definition
The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the imagies that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
Term
Visual cliff
Definition
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and yound animals
Term
Retinal disparity
Definition
A binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance. The greater the disparity between the two images, the closer the object
Term
Monocular Cues
Definition
Depth cues, such as interporsition and linear perspective available to either eye alone
Term
Perceptual constancy
Definition
Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change
Term
Color constancy
Definition
Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wave-lengths reflected by the objects.
Term
Perceptual adaptation
Definition
The ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
Term
Cognition
Definition
All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Term
Concept
Definition
A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
Term
Prototype
Definition
A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).
Term
Algorithm
Definition
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solvinga particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier-but also more error-prone than use of heuristics
Term
Heuristic
Definition
A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
Term
Insight
Definition
A sudden realization of a problems solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Term
Confirmation bias
Definition
A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.
Term
Conservation
Definition
the principle (which Piaget believed to ba a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
Term
Egocentrism
Definition
in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking anothers point of view
Term
Theory of Mind
Definition
People's ideas about their own and others' mental states-about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict
Term
Concrete Operational Stage
Definition
In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7-11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
Term
Formal Operational Stage
Definition
In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
Term
Memory
Definition
The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
Term
Recall
Definition
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
Term
Recognition
Definition
A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
Term
Relearning
Definition
A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
Term
Encoding
Definition
The process of information into the memory system- for example, by extracting meaning
Term
Storage
Definition
The process of retaining encoded information over time
Term
Retrieval
Definition
The process of getting information out of memory storage
Term
Parallel Processing
Definition
The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions
Term
Sensory Memory
Definition
The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Term
Short-term memory
Definition
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten.
Term
Long-Term memory
Definition
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
Term
Working memory
Definition
A newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
Term
Explicit memory
Definition
Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (also called declarative memory)
Term
Effortful Processing
Definition
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
Term
Automatic Processing
Definition
Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space and time, and frequency, and of well-learned information such as word meanings
Term
Implicit Memory
Definition
Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory)
Term
Iconic Memory
Definition
A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
Term
Echoic Memory
Definition
A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
Term
Chunking
Definition
Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
Term
Mnemonics
Definition
Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Term
Spacing Effect
Definition
The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
Term
Testing Effect
Definition
Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
Term
Shallow Processing
Definition
Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
Term
Deep Processing
Definition
Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
Term
Semantic Memory
Definition
Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory)
Term
Episodic Memory
Definition
Explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two concsious memory systems (the other is semantic memory)
Term
Hippocampus
Definition
A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
Term
Memory Consolidation
Definition
The neural storage of a long-term memory
Term
Flashbulb Memory
Definition
A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Term
Long-term Potentiation (LPT)
Definition
An increase in a cell's firing potential after breif, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
Term
Mood-Congruent memory
Definition
The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
Term
Serial Position Effect
Definition
Our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primary effect) items in a list
Term
Audition
Definition
The sense or act of hearing
Term
Frequency
Definition
The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)
Term
Pitch
Definition
A tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
Term
Middle Ear
Definition
The chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the low eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
Term
Cochlea
Definition
A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cohlear fluid tigger nerve impulses
Term
Inner Ear
Definition
The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
Term
Sensorineural hearing loss
Definition
the most common form of hearing loss, also called nerve deafness; caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves
Term
Conduction hearing loss
Definition
Less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
Term
Cochlear implant
Definition
A device for converting sounds in to electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
Term
Place Theory
Definition
In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
Term
Frequency Theory
Definition
In hearing, the theory that the reate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Also claled temporal theory)
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