Term
| What is Psycholinguistics |
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Definition
| An interdisciplinary field that examines how people use language to communicate ideas |
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Term
What is a Phoneme?
How many phonemes are in the english language? |
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Definition
A phoneme is the basic linguistic unit
A phoneme represents a SOUND
There are 40 phonemes in the English language
i.e., /p/b/ch/sh/j/ |
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Term
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Definition
Morphemes are the smallest linguistic unit that has MEANING
i.e., the word reactivated has 4 phonemes
re-active-ate-ed
re = indicates a repeated action
ed = indicates that action happened in the past |
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Term
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Definition
| Semantics is the area of psycholinguistics that examines the MEANINGS OF WORDS AND SENTENCES |
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Term
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Definition
The knowledge of the social rules that underpin language use
i.e., think how you could define the word "syntax" to a 12 year old child, as opposed to a college classmate |
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Term
What are Syntactics?
What is Syntactical Structure? |
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Definition
Grammatical rules that govern the organization of words into sentences
- Sentences are not random strings of words!
- A pattern of words in a certain order is the sentences syntactical structure |
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Term
What is the relationship between words and their meanings?
What does that relationship depend on? |
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Definition
There are tens of thousands of ARBITRARY relationships between symbols(words) and their meanings
Relationship between a word and its meaning depends completely on what was TAUGHT/LEARNED/CONVENTION |
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Term
What is Phrase Structure?
What are the grammatical components (building blocks) that build a phrase? |
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Definition
Phrase structure emphasizes that we construct sentences by using grammatical building blocks called constituents
SENTENCES CAN BE BROKEN DOWN INTO CONSTITUENT PARTS!
Constituent 1: Noun phrase (The old man)
Constituent 2: Verb phrase (Kicked the lazy dog) |
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Term
| Chomsky's Transformational Grammar |
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Definition
Chomsky proposed that humans have innate language skills
Argued that we must MOVE BEYOND PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMAR
Devised a model of Transformational grammar to convert underlying deep structure into the surface structure of a sentence. |
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Term
What is Surface Structure of a sentence?
What is Deep Structure (or Underlying Structure)? |
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Definition
Surface Structure is represented by the words that are actually spoken or written
Deep Structure is the underlying meaning of the written/spoken words
EX: "Sara threw the ball" vs. "The ball was thrown by Sara"
- Surface structure is different but the Deep Structure is the same
EX: "John is easy to please" vs "John is eager to please"
- Similar surface structure but very different deep structure
EX: "The shooting of the hunters was terrible"
- Two sentences can have identical surface structures but very different deep structures; these are called ambiguous sentences |
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Term
How do we convert structures?
Surface --> Deep Structure
Deep --> Surface Structure |
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Definition
BY USING TRANSFORMATIONAL RULES
We convert surface structure to deep structure to understand what we read or hear
We convert deep structure to surface structure when we speak or write
• Transformational grammar is necessary to understand similarities and differences between sentences and their meaning |
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Term
| Factors affecting comprehension: When do we have difficulty understanding sentences? |
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Definition
We have difficulty understanding sentences when...
1) They contain negatives
2) They are in the passive voice
3) Contain nested structures
4) They are ambiguous |
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Term
| Factors Affecting Comprehension: NEGATIVES & DOUBLE NEGATIVES |
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Definition
More processing time required when negatives are used (Clark & Chase)
DOUBLE NEGATIVES: "Doesn't it seem impossible that the Nazi extermination of the Jews never happened?"
- 33% agreed it never happened or where confused by the double negative
ADVICE: USE POSITIVE SENTENCES! |
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Term
| Factors Affecting Comprehension: PASSIVE VOICE |
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Definition
"John sewed the shirt" = ACTIVE
Subject is the agent of the verb = ACTIVE
Agent - Verb - Receiver = ACTIVE
Participants were 75% more accurate at responding "no" to inaccurate statements in active voice than passive voice!
ADVICE: Use active rather than passive voice
APA-style uses active voice! |
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Term
| Factors Affecting Comprehension: NESTED STRUCTURES |
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Definition
A phrase that is embedded within another sentence is a nested structure
EX: "The dog that bit the man who was trying to find susan ran off before he could be found"
Use of multiple nested structures have an associated memory cost!
ADVICE: Use simple rather than nested sentences |
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Term
| Factors Affecting Comprehension: Ambiguities |
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Definition
Use context to aid in interpretation
When people encounter a potential ambiguity, the activation builds up for the well-known meanings of the ambiguous item.
The degree of activation for a particular meaning depends on that meaning's relative frequency and on the context provided by the rest of the sentence
MOST COMMON INTERPRETATION IS MOST ACTIVATED!! |
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Term
| Neurolinguistics: Where does language processing occur? |
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Definition
| Broca's Area & Wernicke's Area |
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Term
Broca's Area
- Where is it and what does it do? |
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Definition
A small posterior part of the inferior frontal gyrus of the left cerebral hemisphere (TOWARD THE FRONT OF THE BRAIN)
Essential component of the MOTOR MECHANISMS governing articulated speech
Damage to Broca's area produces speech that is hesitant, effortful, and grammatically simple. Trouble producing language/expressive language deficit.
"uhh..stroke...and I...huh tawanna guy..h...h...hot tub and...two days when uhh...hos...uh...huh hospital..and uh...ambulance" |
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Term
Wenicke's Area
- Where is it and what does it do? |
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Definition
A large region of the parietal and temporal lobes of the left cerebral hemisphere (Toward the back of the brain)
Thought to be essential for UNDERSTANDING AND FORMULATING coherent speech
Damage to Wernicke's area results in serious difficulties understanding speech, as well as language production that is too wordy and confused
BOTH KINDS OF DAMAGE (APHASIA) CAN DECREASE A PERSON'S GRAMMATICAL ACCURACY. (once we examine languages other than english) |
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Term
Hemispheric Lateralization
Language is located in, or processed by what side of the brain?- (Left handers vs. Right handers?) |
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Definition
Generally, greater activation of LEFT hemisphere in language processing
Language is processed equally by the right side in 6% of right handers and 50% of left handers |
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Term
| Hemispheric Lateralization: LEFT SIDE |
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Definition
Selects likely interpretation of sound
Divides complex words into simpler meanings
Determines cause-effect relationships
Aids in reading and understanding of meaning and grammar |
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Term
| Hemispheric Lateralization: Right Side |
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Definition
Interprets the emotional tone of a message
Plays a role in humor appreciation
Helps to interpret metaphors
Right hemisphere is responsible for more abstract language tasks |
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Term
Using Language: What is the typical reading speed? (Words Per Min)
How long does word identification take? (Milliseconds) |
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Definition
The typical reading speed is between 250-300 words per min
Word identification takes around 200 milliseconds |
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Term
| What kind of mapping between letters and speech sounds do we use in English? |
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Definition
There is NO ONE-TO-ONE mapping between letters and speech sounds in English
Many words have different pronunciations for letter sequences
("EA" has 12 different pronunciations!)
Each phoneme in English can be spelled in a variety of different ways
EX: ea(u) phoneme in beauty is like the iew phoneme in view |
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Term
Spoken Language: How many sounds do we produce per second?
How many sounds do we perceive per min?
How do we distinguish irrelevant noise? |
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Definition
Adult speakers produce 15 sounds per second
Listeners must perceive around 900 sounds per minute
- Separate from ambient and irrelevant noise
- Distinguish sound from irrelevant sounds stored in memory |
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Term
Perception of phonemes: How do we perceive phonemes?
- What is the Phoneme Restoration Effect? |
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Definition
CONTEXT may help us perceive phonemes!
Warren & Warren: Participants hear sentences with a cough (*) spliced in to replace a phoneme
Participants heard different phonemes depending on the context of the sentence = Phoneme Restoration Effect
EX: *eel was on the axle vs. *eel was on the shoe vs. on the orange etc... |
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Term
Reading & Writing vs. Speaking & Listening Differences
General diffs?
Input diffs? (Listening puts demand on what?)
Output diffs? |
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Definition
Visual vs. Auditory
Information is spread out across space vs. over time
Other cues are available in speech (intonation) in addition to sentences on a page
INPUT
Self paced vs. externally paced
Time/opportunity to re-scan in reading
Listening places high demand on WORKING MEMORY
OUTPUT
Discrete boundaries between written words
Acquisition is quicker for spoken language |
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Term
| Correlation between reading comprehension and oral comprehension |
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Definition
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Term
| Readers with a high working memory span.... |
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Definition
Process ambiguous sentences quickly
Quicker and more accurate in understanding complex sentences |
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Term
| Implications for teaching reading: Whole-Word Approach |
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Definition
Readers can directly connect word with meaning
Relationship between word and sounds is complex
Advocates use of context to help reading, rather than focusing on the sound of words |
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Term
| Implications for teaching reading: Phonics Approach |
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Definition
Readers use indirect approach
Learn words through pronunciation
Advocates developing children's awareness of phonemes |
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Term
| Implications for teaching reading: Whole Language Approach |
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Definition
| Instruction should emphasize MEANING |
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Term
| Sentences vs. Connected Discourse |
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Definition
In daily life, we continually process connected discourse (language units that are larger than a sentence)
- Chatting with a friend, listening to a radio show, reading a newspaper article or book, etc... |
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Term
READING & Discourse: Where do we hold the information?
- Discourse comprehension emphasizes the importance of what? |
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Definition
We hold information in an accessible form in memory - WM/LTWM
We access background information using EXPECTATION, SCHEMAS, and SCRIPTS!!
We modify or build new REPRESENTATIONS
We make inferences from text/context (Bridging, Causal, Predictive) |
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Term
Reading Comprehension: How does the representation occur?
What is the process by which we represent the text? |
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Definition
Kintsch's Tripartite Model
Surface structure
Textbase (propositions)
Situation Model (mental model of what text is about)
We understand each new sentence within the context of the previous text. We quickly process the information in a new sentence and integrate the important information within the general representation of the text.
Schemas play an important role in creating a coherent representation
Working memory no longer stores the specific words of the sentence
When people try to form a coherent representation of the test, they often make inferences that go beyond the information supplied by the writer. |
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Term
Comprehension: A process of constructing propositions?
Kintsh & Keenan |
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Definition
Subject read different sentences
Sentences were same length (same # of words)
Sentences has differed number of propositions
Measured reading time
The more propositions the longer the mean reading time! |
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Term
From Textbase to Situation Model: CONSTRUCTION-INTEGRATION PROCESS
What occurs and what is created?
What happens with the addition of new contextual information (sentences/propositions)and what is then created? |
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Definition
Activation values assigned to propositions/concepts from text
Final activation value determines what is important/retained in memory
PRODUCT: Integrated Representation
New contextual information results in a repeat of the Construction Integration process, including product of the first construction-integration process (i.e., prior context)
RESULT: Updated integrated representation = Situation Model |
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Term
From Textbase to Situation Model
Inferences: Updated Integrated Representation |
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Definition
Updated integrated representation (situation model) allows inferences to be made
- When initial context was elaborated to form weakly associated knowledge net |
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Term
CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF INFERENCES
- What kind of inferences? |
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Definition
Causes of events
Relationships between events
- Individuals actively construct explanations as they integrate new context into existing representation of the situation |
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Term
MAKING INFERENCES
4 conditions & Reading Time |
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Definition
1) Far (# 4 goal, # 10 Consistency statement) Consistent with goal
2) Far (# 4 goal, # 10 Consistency statement) Inconsistent with goal
3) Near (# 4 goal, # 5 Consistency statement) Consistent
4) Near (# 4 goal, # 5 Consistency statement) Inconsistent
- Participants read the inconsistent statements more slowly, irrespective of how long that statement was presented after the goal
- Participants try to construct a representation that is internally consistent, even when irrelevant information intervenes! |
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Term
| Inferences: Individuals are likely to synthesize information and draw inferences if they...? |
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Definition
Have a high WORKING MEMORY capacity
Good METACOMPREHENSION skills (realize they need to link information together)
Expertise (Can compensate for low WM capacity, if necessary, via Long Term Working Memory) |
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Term
| Inferences: Individuals are unlikely to make inferences if...? |
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Definition
Reading scientific texts
Reading newspapers with contradictory information |
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Term
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Definition
To move beyond given information, often in a GOAL DIRECTED manner
- Achieve goal, look for solutions, make decisions, strategize, plan ahead, consider beliefs, make inferences, contemplate consequences
- In the TRANSFORMATION of information |
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Term
Problem Solving
- What is the problem? How is it REPRESENTED?
- How do we solve a problem?
- Factors influencing problem solving? |
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Definition
We solve a problem using STRATEGIES & HEURISTICS
CREATIVITY influences how we solve a problem
- Finding novel solutions to a problem is creative |
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Term
What is Problem Solving?
- what are the 2 states of problem solving? |
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Definition
Initial State: Problem first described/encountered
Goal State: Problem solved
- magic happens in between |
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Term
| What are the key features of a problem? |
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Definition
OBSTACLES
- Make it problematic |
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Term
Understanding the Problem
- We construct a representation based on....?
- Good understanding requires?? |
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Definition
To understand we construct a representation based on
AVAILABLE INFORMATION and OWN EXPERIENCE
Good understanding requires an ACCURATE REPRESENTATION
Accurate representation requires selective attention to RELEVANT/IMPORTANT information associated with the problem |
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Term
Representing the problem
- Use effective strategies to reduce demand!
How we we represent the problem? |
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Definition
- Symbols
- Matrices
- Diagrams
- Visual Images |
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Term
| Representing a Problem: SYMBOLS |
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Definition
| Problem solvers often simplify the sentence and use symbols that MISREPRESENT the information! |
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Term
| Representing a problem: MATRICES |
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Definition
- A matrix is a chart that shows all possible combinations of items
EX: Monk Climbing = Lines intersect at some arbitrary point…but they have to cross! |
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Term
| Representing a problem: DIAGRAMS |
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Definition
Hierarchical Tree Diagram – Options in a given problem space
- A figure that uses a tree-like structure to specify various possible options in a problem
- Task analysis (chess)
With training on methods of representation, students can choose the most appropriate method for a given problem (Novick, 1999) |
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Term
| Attempting to solve the problem: ALGORITHMS |
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Definition
An algorithm is a mechanism that will produce the solution, but sometimes inefficiently
- AN EXHAUSTIVE SEARCH! |
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Term
| Attempting to solve a problem: HEURISTICS |
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Definition
A heuristic is a general rule that is usually correct
- Ignores some alternatives and explores possible others
(hill-climbing, means-ends, analogy)
- NO GUARANTEE!! |
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Term
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Definition
Choose the path that directly moves you closer to the goal
Encourages short-term goals, rather than long term solutions! |
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Term
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Definition
Identify the ends(goals, sub-goals) and figure out the means to reach those ends
- Break problem into sub-components/steps
- At each step, reduce the difference between initial state and goal state --> move closer to goal state
- Work forwards from initial state, or backwards from goal state |
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Term
Simulating cognition using computer modeling:
General Problem Solver (Computational Model) |
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Definition
Solves problem through MEANS-ENDS ANALYSIS
- Requires absolute specification about how things work!
- GOAL: Not to solve problems as efficiently as possible, but to MIMIC HUMAN COGNITION/make similar errors
Problems are often ill-defined/goal is not obvious
- Need alternative methods/heuristics |
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Term
Computer Modeling: There are many computational models!
Anderson's ACT-R Framework |
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Definition
Sub-symbolic (Differential activation of declarative chunks in memory)
Symbolic (Production system: If/Then)
If = Left side: Condition
Then = Right side: Action
- Match between goal and left side of the production (condition) determines which production fires (parallel matching, serial firing)
- Results in action (internal or external) that modifies the existing goal (i.e., sub-goal) or produces a new goal |
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Term
| Solving a problem: Analogy Approach |
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Definition
When faced with a new problem, we often make reference back to previous examples of the same/similar tasks
- Attempt to apply prior situation to current problem |
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Term
Analogy Approach: Problem Isomorphs
- Featural vs. Structural similarity
- How can we get better at solving problem isomorphs? |
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Definition
Isomorphic problems have the same underlying structures and solutions, but different surface features
- Learners often focus on featural rather than structural similarity = Fail to solve an analogous problem when it is isomorphic but 'dressed up' using different superficial features!
- We get better when given hints and with training on problem sorting based on structural differences |
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Term
Factors Affecting Problem Solving Ability: EXPERTISE
- What does it take to become an expert? |
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Definition
Deliberate Practice!
10 years, 10,000 hours
- Acquisition of qualitively different mechanisms
i.e., Knowledge base, memory recall, representative task performance
- I.Q., traits, abilities, etc are not predictive of expertise! |
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Term
| Expertise: Knowledge Base |
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Definition
Novices lack knowledge of underlying principles required to solve the problem in Physics
Need the appropriate schema in order to understand a topic properly
Experts may perform especially well if they have had training in a variety of relevant settings |
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Term
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Definition
Experts have superior memory for TASK-RELEVANT information
- This is an incidental by-product of their superior representation
Experts memory is only better if the chess arrangement fits into a particular schema. (perform the same when looking at random arrangements) |
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Term
| Expertise: REPRESENTATION |
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Definition
Novices use NAIVE representations typically based on surface features of the problem
Experts construct representations based on structural features of the problem |
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Term
| Expertise: Problem solving strategies |
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Definition
Experts choose appropriate source analogy because they see how it maps on to the target problem
- Experts use means-ends analysis more effectively on novel problems |
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Term
Expertise: Speed and Accuracy
- Anagrams |
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Definition
Experts typically solve a problem more quickly and accurately
- Some aspects become more automated but it is unlikely that automaticity is characteristic of expert performance, particularly strategic/tactical aspects
Experts may solve problems faster because they use parallel processing, rather than serial. (handle 2 or more items at the same time rather than one item at a time)
Experts solve anagrams so quickly that they must consider several alternative solutions at the same time! |
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Term
| Expertise: METACOGNITIVE SKILLS |
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Definition
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Term
| Expertise: METACOGNITIVE SKILLS |
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Definition
Experts
- Monitor problems more effectively
- Judge difficulty of problems more accurately
- Better at own-error detection and correction
- Capable of self-regulating their own learning |
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Term
MENTAL SETS: Jug Problem
- What is a mental set?
- Mental sets are a result of? |
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Definition
Applying a successful prior method
- Other methods may be more appropriate
- Prevents thinking about the problem more deeply that would allow better solution to be identified
RESULT OF OVERACTIVE TOP-DOWN PROCESSING
- Lack of attention to new context! |
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Term
| What is Functional Fixedness? |
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Definition
Functional fixedness means that the functions or uses we assign to physical objects tend to remain fixed or stable
- As a result, we fail to look at features of a stimulus that might be useful in helping us solve a problem |
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Term
Factors Affecting Problem Solving Ability: STEREOTYPE THREAT
What is it and why does it occur? |
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Definition
Membership to a group that is expected to perform worse than some other group
- Knowledge of how stereotype group typically performs affects group members' problem solving ability!
WHY?
Increases arousal/anxiety --> worry (cognitive component of anxiety) & INCREASED THOUGHT SUPPRESSION
CONSUMES WORKING MEMORY RESOURCES!! |
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Term
| Factors affecting problem solving ability: INSIGHT |
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Definition
Insight = Feeling of sudden success when some aspect of the problem is viewed differently
- People working on insight problems usually hold some inappropriate assumptions when they begin to solve a problem MISLEADING INFO DOMINATES THINKING!
- It is NOT helpful to talk to yourself while working on an insight problem. LANGUAGE/SELF-TALK MAY INTERFERE WITH PROBLEM SOLVING!! |
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Term
| Factors affecting problem solving: NON-INSIGHT PROBLEMS |
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Definition
Non-insight problems are solved gradually using memory, reasoning skills, and routine procedures
- Benefit from application of top-down processing & self-explanation
The strategies learned in previous classes offer guidance as you work, step-by-step, toward the proper conclusion of an algebra problem |
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Term
| Insight vs. Non-insight: Am I getting warmer? |
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Definition
Insight problems result in an ABRUPT INCREASE IN CONFIDENCE
Non-Insight problems result in a GRADUAL increase in confidence
The difference suggests that people solve the two kinds of problems differently. You might begin to solve a P by contemplating if you have previous experience with similar problems. Top-down processing is useful in non-insight as you consider trying to explain strategies to yourself.
Insight problems require a different approach, and it's difficult to learn how to solve insight problems more effectively. You might try to represent the problem in a different way. Insight problems force you to search for the answer "outside the box" by abandoning customary assumptions and looking for novel solutions |
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Term
What is thinking?
What is Deductive Reasoning?
Premise vs. Logic (logic specifies what?) |
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Definition
Thinking: To move beyond given information, often in a GOAL-DIRECTED manner
Deductive Reasoning: To conclude something based on some specific premise
- Are you able to use logic to draw a logical conclusion?
PREMISE: True/False
LOGIC: Specifies RULES to be used to draw a conclusion |
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Term
| What happens in Decision Making? |
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Definition
Assess situation and choose among several alternatives
- Potentially contradictory or missing information
- No specific rules to follow
- Consequences are not always immediately apparent |
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Term
What is CONDITIONAL (propositional) REASONING?
- Specifies what?
- How is it specified? |
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Definition
Conditional reasoning specifies that RELATIONSHIP between conditions
Relationship is specified by an IF/THEN statement
(condition-action/condition-condition)
EX:
If this is true than that will happen
This is not true
Conclusion: That will not happen
Is the conclusion valid/invalid? |
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Term
| Deductive Reasoning: Syllogisms |
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Definition
A syllogism consists of two statements that we must assume to be true, plus a conclusion
- Refer to quantities, so they use the words ALL, NONE, SOME, and other similar terms
- The conclusion can be Valid, Invalid, or INDETERMINATE
EX:
Some psych. majors are friendly
Some friendly people are concerned about poverty
Therefore, some psych. majors are concerned about poverty |
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Term
| Conditional Reasoning Statements: ANTECEDENTS & CONSEQUENTS |
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Definition
ANTECEDENT: If portion of the statement
CONSEQUENT: Then portion of the statement |
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Term
| 4 Conditional Reasoning Situations |
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Definition
Affirm Antecedent – Valid (confirming the if part of statement)
- If this is an apple, then this is a fruit
Affirm Consequence – Fallacy (confirming the then part of statement)
- This is a fruit, therefore this is an apple (Fallacy because not all fruits are apples)
Deny Antecedent – Fallacy
- This is not an apple, therefore this is not a fruit
Deny Consequent – Valid
- This is not a fruit, therefore this is not an apple |
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Term
| Conditional Reasoning: Which statements produce valid conclusions? |
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Definition
1) AFFIRMING THE ANTECEDENT
2) DENYING THE CONSEQUENT |
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Term
| Conditional Reasoning: Which statements produce an invalid conclusion/fallacy? |
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Definition
1) Denying the antecedent
2) Affirming the consequent |
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Term
| Reasoning Difficulties: NEGATIVES |
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Definition
Individuals have difficulty processing negative sentences
EX: If John did not kill Jack, Then he will not go to prison
John did not kill Jack (affirming the antecedent)
Therefore he will not go to prison
- Greater RT/More errors when processing negative statements
- Make errors translating to positive statements
- High demand on Working Memory Capacity |
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Term
| Reasoning Difficulties: ABSTRACT/ARBITRARY |
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Definition
Reasoning about people and real-world events, scenes, and objects is easier than abstract objects whose characteristics are arbitrary
EX: If the object is textured, then it is square
The object is not square
Therefore it is not textured
= VALID!
Use the rules: Deny the consequent = valid |
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Term
| Reasoning Difficulties: BELIEF-BIAS EFFECT |
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Definition
Background information/beliefs/experience encourage us to make logical errors
If I cut my finger, I will bleed
My finger is bleeding
I have cut my finger
= FALLACY - Logical answer is contrary to experience/beliefs |
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Term
| Individual Differences in Susceptibility to Belief-Bias Effect |
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Definition
"No one can talk me out of what I know is right" = More susceptible!!
"People should always consider evidence that contradicts their beliefs." = Less susceptible
WE RELY TO HEAVILY ON OUR ESTABLISHED BELIEFS! |
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Term
Reasoning Difficulties: CONFIRMATION BIAS
How many people affirmed the antecedent?
How many people denied the consequent? |
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Definition
We prefer to confirm a current hypothesis than to reject it!!
EX: Cards can have either man/woman on one side, dog/cat on the other. If the card has a man on the face, then it must have a cat on the back
CONFIRMATION BIAS: Affirm the antecedent = Turn the man card
89% of people
another valid method is to deny the consequent and turn the dog card = 25% of people |
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Term
| Difficulties with Decision Making |
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Definition
Information could be partial, incomplete, or misleading
No specific rules to follow
Emotion may influence decision making |
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Term
What are Heuristics?
What 4 Factors influence heuristics |
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Definition
General rules that typically produce a correct solution
- Representativeness
- Availability
- Anchoring
- Adjustment |
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Term
| Heuristics: REPRESENTATIVENESS |
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Definition
Looks representative if it has similar important characteristics to the sample from which it was selected
Sample=Random --> Important characteristics look "random" --> Representative |
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Term
Sample size and Representativeness
What is the law of large numbers?
What is the Small Sample Fallacy? |
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Definition
Large sample size is representative of the population from which they are selected = Law of large numbers
EX: Throw dice 600 times, each number likely rolled approx. 100 times
SMALL SAMPLE FALLACY - Assumes small samples will be representative of the sample from which they are selected
EX: Throw dice 6 times, one number is likely to come up at least twice
= LEADS TO INCORRECT DECISIONS |
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Term
Base Rate and Representativeness
What is BASE RATE?
What is the Base-Rate Fallacy? How is it related to Representativeness? |
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Definition
Base Rate: How often an item occurs in a population
Base Rate Fallacy: Under-emphasize important information about base rates
- Individuals usually ignore the base rate in favor of the REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC |
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Term
Availability Heuristic
- What is it?
- What is availability usually correlated with? |
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Definition
We estimate frequency or probability in terms of how easy it is to generate examples of something
- How much effort does it take to retrieve a particular example from memory?
- Availability is usually correlated with true, objective frequency. |
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Term
| What 4 Factors Affect Availability? |
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Definition
1) Recency
2) Familiarity
3) Illusory Correlations
4) Simulation Heuristics |
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Term
| Factors Affecting Availability: RECENCY |
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Definition
More recently experienced items are more available in memory
e.g., Dentist may suggest you need a crown if he has already done a number of crowns this week |
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Term
| Factors Affecting Availability: Familiarity |
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Definition
More familiar experiences are more available in memory
e.g., Unemployment rate is probably judged higher by lower class individuals where unemployment rates are high |
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Term
| Factors Affecting Availability: ILLUSORY CORRELATION |
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Definition
When people believe two variables are statistically related
- Reality = No relationship
Important information is ignored
Confirmatory information is sought
Rely upon well-known information in one cell of a data matrix
Fail to seek information in other available cells |
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Term
| Factors Affecting Availability: SIMULATION HEURISTIC |
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Definition
A special case of availability heuristic
Availability = Ease with which one can recall examples
Simulation = Ease with which one can think of (construct) particular scenarios/imagine a series of events
e.g., Judge the likelihood you will be rich |
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Term
| Anchoring & Adjustment Heuristic |
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Definition
We begin with a first approximation = ANCHOR
And ADJUST on the basis of additional information
EX: Want to fly home
- Delta flights range from $700-800
- Highly available information serves as an ANCHOR
Continue searching, find one for $650 = BUY! |
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Term
| What two factors influence decision outcomes? |
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Definition
1) Background context of the choice
2) The way in which the question is worded |
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Term
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Definition
Background context & Framing of the question influence decision outcomes
SUPERFICIAL DETAILS DISTRACT FROM THE FACT THAT THE DEEP STRUCTURE OF THE QUESTIONS IS ESSENTIALLY THE SAME!!!
EX: Buying a Coat: Rational decision should be the same for each situation
EX: Gains & Losses/Certain vs Risky = All choices are statistically the same (Framed differently) |
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Term
| Sources of overconfidence in decision making |
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Definition
Own knowledge is often based on tenuous assumptions and unreliable sources/information
We can easily find information to prove our point, but we do not seek information to disprove it
Current hypothesis seems even more plausible because you can't recall the alternatives
Alternative hypothesis sought/found are often not treated seriously
Self-Fulfilling prophecy: When selected individuals do well, basis for their selection is reaffirmed. BUT non-selected individuals may have also succeeded |
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Term
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Definition
When given the outcome of a situation we color the rest of the events that lead up to it with that knowledge
We are often overconfident that we could have predicted the outcome of a prior event
We misremember prior events so that they are consistent with the outcome |
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