• First empiricist
• Tabula Rasa (blank slate)
• Scientific Method

• Hypthothetical Ideal Forms of Objects (e.g. Chair); exist elsewhere and all others are imperfect imitations of the true object
• Wrote The Republic; rulers should be philosopher kings
• Dualism: Body and soul are distinct
• Emotions occur in the soul and can be destructive if too emotional

• "I think, therefore I am
• Heavily influenced by Plato
• Father of Enlightenment
• Dualist (Body v. Mind)
• Rationalist (reason and logic rather experience- experience is subjective)
• Logic is what separates man from animal

• Father of cognitive psychology
• First to invent a scientific method to study memory and cognition using objective methods of observation
• Strongest influence on cognitive psychology
• Studied memory and forgetting of nonsense syllables as a function of time (series of memory lists, seeing how long to remember and forget)

• Father of Psychology
• 1st Psychology Laboratory
• Separated psychology from philosopphy and physiology by studying introspection (introspection= internal perception, looking within oneself to assess one's inner sensations and experiences)
• Trained students to be introspective and be sensitive to slightest changes
• Focused on conscious processes
• These introspections were later shown to be unreliable

• Studied structuralism (study of the structures of the conscious mind)
• Wundt's student
• Structures of the mind included sensations, feelings, and mental images
• Trained students to avoid stimulus error (e.g. reporting what is already known through experience; reporting anything other than a quality of a sensation, image or affect while introspecting

• Functionalist (how the mind functions and adapts)
• Some approaches are better suited than others for certain tasks
• Change our thoughts and behaviors to ones that are better adapted to our government (for example, if we learn better by listening, we should come to every class and record the lecture)

• Father of Behaviorism
• Rejected consciousness and introspection
• Defined psychology as the science of behavior; observable, quantifiable, and overt
• Later behavior experiments emphasized operational definition adn experimental control
• Behaviorists limits: It simply could not explain the most interesting human behaviors, notable language (Chomsky)

• Watson and Maynor conditioned fear in a little baby
• Generalized the fear of rats into all white fuzzy creatures

• Pavlov developed Classical Conditioning
• Skinner developed Operant Conditioning
• (Pavlov, Skinner, and Watson= Behaviorist Revolution)

• Format= the means by which it conveys information (how?)
• Content= the meaning, conveyed by a particular representation (what does it mean?)

• Sensation= Raw information received by a sensory organ
• Perception= How the raw information is interpreted

• Presence of a stimulus beyond its physical duration; for example, the twirling of a baton or lightening

• Anything that reduces or eliminates the perception of the initial image

Can mask it with a piece of paper, by dimming the screen, by using a distracting image, or by placing other stimuli around it (word search)

• A device that displays an image for a specific amount of time
• To help train military personnel to increase recognition speed
• Measure iconic memory with it

• Recall everything at once
• A block of letters was shown and the subject was asked to recall it row by row

• Only had to report one of the rows after hearing a tone

• Start to look at everything all at once
• Relies on higher order processing, cognition and memory
• When images are incomplete, it allows us to recognize patterns and fill in the blanks

• It's about seeing the separate components
• Use sensation and stimuli to recognize a specific pattern/object and matich it to a template

• The set of geometric shapes that can be used to represent just about any object
• Recognition by Components Model: Suggests that we recognize objects by breaking them down into their components
• The model assumes that any three-dimensional object can be generally described according to its parts and the spatial relations among those parts

• Describes the relationship between perceptual processing and the encoding, storage and retrieval of the resulting neural representations
• Iconic Memory: Visual stimuli in the form of mental pictures
• Easier time recalling letters of the same color in the same row or column, implying a visual (iconic) storage [in the Sperlin's tachistoscope iconic memory measurement]

• Echoic Memory
• Stored longer than iconic memory
• Allows for verbal communication
• Similar whole report vs. partial report results as in iconic memory

• Tactile Sensory Memory also called Touch
• Partial Report > Whole Report
• Memory decayed over time

• Refers to the fact that people tend to learn better when using multiple modes of learning (e.g. visual + audio)
• Difference in recall depending on the modality that the stimuli were presented in (e.g. visually vs. acoustically)

• Easier to recall sounds made most recently
• Tendency to recall last presented stimuli that were presented earlier

• A little less common than recency effect
• When people remember what was first listed rather than what was most recently listed
• Tendency to recall the first presented stimuli

• A distraction stimulus that is added at the end

• The inability to recognize faces

Kosslyn is the main researcher

Semantic, episodic, or spatial images seen in the "mind's eye"

Being able to close your eyes and imagine something is there

• Standing & Shepard
• Images provide the foundation for all represenations and memory
• a.k.a Pro-imagery approach

• Paivo
• Two distinct systems for memory/imagination
• VERBAL (language): abstract concepts such as "truth" have low imagery potential but high association value (can easily generate related concepts)
• NONVERBAL (imagery): concrete words that have high imagery potential, e.g., "juggler", but low association value

•  Kosslyn & Pyluyshyn
• Argues against the notion that images are used as simply pictures to represent different concepts
• Images are descriptions of scenes rather than still photographs
• Images are processed in the same way as perception and that experience of seeing it in the mind is the same as seeing it in real life
• Visual Scanning: scanning the image from one point to the next

• Cerebral Blood Flow: amount of blood flow to a specific area, increases with activity
• Event Related Potentials (ERP'S) amount of electrical stimulation in a specific area
• These results suggest that mental imagery is visual 

• One sensory pathway is connected to involuntary experiences in a second sensory pathway
• Improves memory because of cross-modal associations

• People's memories aren't as good as we think
• Were able to induce false memories into students by photoshopping early childhood pictures

• A hallucination is a sensory event believed to be real but only available to the perceiver:
• Temporal lobe seizures (spiritual events, aura, talking to God)
• Anesthesia
• Head Trauma
• Biological or Psychological Disorder
• Substances

• Depicts ultimate arousal level for optimal Stress and Memory Performance
• Shows the relationship between declarative memory performance and arousal
• Mild or moderate arousal improves memory, but stress--that is, prolonged and extreme arousal--impairs it

Central Nervous System= Brain and Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous System= Autonomic (sympathetic & parasympathetic) and Somatic

Laterization

(Old Theories)

• Right vs. Left Hemisphere Hypothesis: Right is involved in emotion processing and left is involved in logic and verbal processing
• Valence Hypothesis: Right hemisphere is involved in processing emotions with negative valence and left hemisphere is involved in processing emotions and objects with position valence

Laterization

(New Theories)

Emotion is lateralized in both hemispheres (bilateral), although more of a right hemisphere function

• Stronger activation of right hemisphere by emotion
• Humor lat. in rt. hemi
• Rt. hemi. lesions abolish neg. em. and increase euphoria/or indifference
• Lt. hemi. lesions prod. depression and aggression
• Neuroplasticity: both can be processed in 1 hemi. after damage

• Protest/Anxiety
• Despair/Grief
• Detachment

• Secure Attachment: anxious only when mom is away
• Anx-Res. Ambiv: anxious whether mom is there or not
• Anx.-Avoid.: ign. mom and stranger. Won't explore
• Disorganized: Mary Main: Cry during separation but avoid during return, might throw a tantrum (Mother's suffered losses or trauma)

• Monkeys preferred soft, cuddly wire monkeys, whether they lactated or not.
• The longer the monkeys were isolated, the less likely they were to recover

• Emotions are perceptions of physiological changes induced by ANS
• Stimulus Physiological Response Interpret Physiology Emotion and Action
• Does not distinguish between physiological changes due to different events (e.g. rapid HR from fear vs. running or sex)
• Doesn't take into account the cognitive appraisal of the situation

Cannon-Bard Theory

(similar to James-Lange Theory)

• Stimulus Physiological Response + Interpret physiology (occurs together) Emotion and Action

Existential Theory of Emotions

(Sartre)

• Critical of the James-Lange Theory
• Proposed that emotions are conscious acts
• We choose to feel a certain way and can change our perceptions (we choose to feel depressed b/c getting something out of it)
• Must take responsibility for how we conceptualize the world

• Patients in the Informed Group and/or placebo condition did not report a change in emotion (not the rude guy)
• Patients in Misinformed or Control Groups with adrenaline experienced either euphoria or aggression/anger (attributed tothe rude guy)
• Suggest that both phys. and cog. comp. predict emotion
• 2-Factor Theory Suggests:
• Environment+Though process contribute to experience
• Schacter combined the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theory into one
• Both the environment and your thought process influence emotional experience

Learned Helplessness

(Anxiety Model)

• Seligman used 2 groups of dogs, one was allowed to escape from shocks adn the other was not (experimental group)
• Experimental group demonstrated learned helplessness (lethargy, apathy, and did not try to escape when given a chance)
• Evidence now available with veteran populations and victims of chronic abuse

Abramson's Attribution Theory 

(Internal, Stable, Global)

Describes individual attributions or interpretations of events- Aversive Outcome; Lack of Control; Maladaptive Attribution

      Internal: I made this mistake

      Stable: These consequences will continue

      Global: This will affect every area of my life

Severity of Subjects increase if patients is certain of negative outcomes

• Past experiences create schemas (scripts) that appear to be true to us and are generalized to most situations
• Negative Cognitive Triad: Slef, World, & Future; more likely to have depression
• Overgeneralization
• Catastrophizing
• Black & White thinking/All or Nothing/Dichotomous thinking

Studied the facial expression of emotion and suggested that there are 6 basic expressions of emotion:

• anger; disgust; fear; happiness; sadness; surprise

Created the Facial Action Coding System currently used by the FBI and other federal agencies to detect lying; Showed that manipulating face muscles can change emotion 

• Amygdala is centrally involved in the processing of emotional stimuli
• Ancient Greeks and Hebrews thought the liver was the seat of emotions

• Pavlov: Can condition fear via classical conditioning
• Watson (1929): 3 fundamental emotions (fear, rage, love) identified in Little Albert study: extinction, counterconditioning, systematic desensitization

• Flat affect, lack of empathy
• Unable to learn from physically or emotionally painful experiences
• Reduced serotonin, so no inhibition on periaqueductal gray matter (aggression)
• Genetic abnormality (2 short alleles) might be the reason for lower serotonin production
• SSRI's help somewhat
• Better at lying and are more likely to "pass" the lie detector test, becuase they are stress tolerant
• If administered shocks or other painful sensations, will only learn if given adrenalin (will raise anxiety or enjoy it?)
• Sensation seeking

Involuntary facial expressions shown on the face of humans according to emotions experienced

From Eckman

• Visual 
• Acoustic
• Tactile (Haptic)
• Semantic

• Uses sensory registers and rehearsal/coding
• Information from outside world enters the sensory system
• Sensory memories encode the info
• If attention is present, transfer memory to STM (aka "Mental Workbench") and can produce outputs/responses
• STM-LTM (aka "Filing Cabinet")

Contains the following components: Visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, phonological loop, and central executive; in which stimuli are stored

Then sent to Central Executive Processing

Then to LTM

• Sound bits we can store for a short time
• Can store more short words than long ones

• Temporary working place for phonological loop, visuosketchpad, and LTM
• Allows for problem solving, manipulation of information, and planning for future activities

• Integrates information from visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer
• Allows for mulititasking
• Plays a role in attention and planning (e.g. chess)

Ebbinghaus' Serial Position Curve 

(memory for nonsense syllables)

• Graph (U-Shaped, inverse of bell curve) of item-by-item recall from the recall task
• Shows recency and primacy effects, but middle information isn't remembered well
• Free Recall: recall items in any order
• Serial Recall: recall the items in the order they were presented

• George Miller credited with this observation
• People can keep only about 7 items (+/- 2) active in STM storage
• This limitation influences performance on a wide range of mental tasks

Chunking

(Miller)

• The process of grouping single items into higher level units of organizations (chunks)
• A way to overcome mental bottleneck (the constricted amount of information we are able to process)

Memory decays by 50% by 6 seconds and after 15-18 seconds most of it is gone

A central idea regarding STM was that information would be available only for a brief period of time if not rehearsed

     The B-P task tested this idea

     Finding suggested the shortness of short-term storage

Decay= natural loss of info (~15 secs)

• Proactive: previously learned information interferes with learning new information
• Retroactive: new information interferes with recalling old information

Sternberg Task

(Parallel scanning, serial exhaustive, serial self-terminating)

• Demonstrated the high level of accessibility of information stored in STM
• We use high speed serial exhaustive scanning
• Parallel Scanning: probe item is compared to the test set simultaneously (increasing memory set shouldn't increase response time)
• Serial Exhaustive: comparing the probe item to each letter one by one (increasing set will increse response time but same response time if probe is in the beginning or the end)
• Serial Self Terminating: Response time is affected by the probe position

• temporal love cortex surgery to alleviate seizures, cut most of of hippocampus
• was unable to learn new information (but if salient, learned it over time)
• Couldn't recall some information prior to the surgery (retrograde amnesia)
• Most amnestic patients have normal working memory and can recall information priory to the accident but cannot store new information into LTM (anterograde amnesia)
• Suffers from severe anterograde amnesia, the inability to for STM
• Some retrograde amnesia, the forgetting of events that occurred before the damage to the brain, dame to LTM
• An important aspect of H.M.'s retrograde amnesia is that it is temporarily graded: (the closer an even had occurred to his surgery, the more likely it is to have been forgotten)
• Initiated a 2nd landmark insight into the organization of memory--> the medial temporal lobes are not necessary for all types of memory--> the medial temporal lobe has been shown to be a convergence zone--> a region that receives highly processed input from many brain areas...NECESSAY for retrieving unconsolidated memories--> once consolidated, memories can be retrieved directly from lateral cortical regions
• Learned the skill of "mirror tracing" (the remapping of visual perception onto motor actions because of the mirror-reversed nature of the visual input)

• patients suffering from certain forms of neurological or psychiatric illnesses have impaired working memory
• Studies suggest that dopamine is especially important for working memory
• Drugs that increase levels of dopamine in the brain or facilitate the action of dopamine can enhance working memory capabilities

• Patients working with Korsakoff Syndrome have vitamin B1 deficiency (typically due to alcohol or bezodiazepine abuse)
• Just like patients with amnesia: (can use working memory and have some recollection from LTM but are unable to store new info into LTM)
• Differences in storage between amnestic patients and patients without amnesia shows a dichotomy betweem STM and LTM

• Implicit (non-declarative): difficult to explain to others such as how to ride a bike. Unconscious
• Explicit (declarative): can be verbally explained to others (e.g. how to access mail)

Refers to forms of LTM that can ordinarily be consciously recollected and declared or described to other people

• Encompasses episodic memory, the memory of events in our own personal past
• encompasses semantic memory, our general knowledge about things in the world and their meaning

• Founder of human memory and cognition
• Used a relearning task with nonsense syllables
• One of the first to notice that lists with 7 or less items are learned the first time they are presented
• The forgetting curve is initially rapid then plateaus

The Generation Effect: episodic learning is better if we can generate the target information from memory compared to when the information is presented to us from another person

• More effective than simply receiving and attempting to memorize
• Thought to be a more powerful encoding event than merely processing externally presented information

The Spacing Effect: Encoding across multiple study trials with the same information is optimal following a particular pattern of temporal sequencing of the study trials

• Massed Practice: many trials with the same stimulus are undertaken without interruption
• Distributed Practice: the trials with the same stimulus are separated by other stimuli
• Spacing Effect: a suitable distribution of repetition over a space of time is decidedly more advantageous than the missing of them at a single time
• Encoding Variability: the encoding of different aspects of a stimulus as different features are selected for encoding in subsequent encounters

• A word that contains the first letter of the words to be remembered

Create a sentence (e.g. Please excuse my dear aunt Sally)

Associate specific items in your environment with what you need to remember

A type of Method of Loci

     Write the rhyming poem and associate the words in the poem with the target words

Tip of the Tongue 

(Titchener)

• Retrieval Failure (developed by William James)
• Aware of the word trying to produce, would be able to recognize it but can't retrieve it
• Something is blocking it and you are actively trying to suppress another word

Working in the same motivational state will improve memory

     Better retrieval when internal states at retrieval match  

     those at encoding

• Cue Dependent: It is stimulated by hints and clues from the external and the internal environment
• Context Dependent: Retrieval is typically better when the physical environment at retrieval matches than at encodign

• The closer the nodes are to each other, the less links the informations has to travel through, the faster the activation will be

• Concepts are represented as lists of semantic features rather than nodes (canary is birdier than an ostrich, so will activate the response faster than the ostrich)
• Features are rank-ordered with the most important/defininf feature on top and the characteristic features listed below
• Concepts that are closely related (according to our knowledge) are processed the fastest (semantic relatedness effect)

• Color, shape, or other visual features can become assigned to a negibhoring object
•      (e.g. think suspect was wearingorange because someone next to him had on an orange jacket)

When two events are happening simulataneously but one is more salient, we will believe that the more salient one happened first (Titchener)

• Erroneous belief that one's attitudes are stable over time, have been observed in personal relationships
•     Memory for the degree of initial happiness with a relationship is typically distorted by beliefs about the current degree of happinss
•      We reconstruct the past during retreival rather than reporduce it (reconstructive memory)

(Reflexive Attention)

• Orienting toward a new/salient stimulus
• It is reactive; the person doesn't control it

• Over time attention to a continuously or frequently presented stimulus is gradually reduced

Over time, attention to a continuously or frequently presented stimulus us gradually reduced

• People can focus on only one message at a time
• The rejected message in the other ear, did well on the dichotic task 
• Ability to tune into a relevant conversation while other conversations are happening simultaneously
• Observed by Cherry

Binaurally: both messages in both ears at the same time 

Monoaural/Dichotic: one message in each ear 

A short period during which incoming information is not registered because the other information is being attendend

A restriction on the amount of information that can be processed at once

     Because of this, certain critical mental operations have  

     to be carried out sequentially

Dual Task Interference

(multitasking)

• Shiffrin & Schneider (1977)
• Automatic Tasks: do not require conscious attention; reflexive; have infinite capacity; do not require working memory (depend on a well-functioning basal ganglia; used on easy or very familiar tasks)
• Controlled Tasks: use short term memory and require conscious attention (used for difficult or new tasks)

• Reading colors of words that are actually written in different colors
• Red

Early Bottleneck Theory

(Broadbent's Model of Attention)

• The bottleneck occurs early on in the processing
• One ear is being attended to first, and then the other
• Remember the Y shape

• Treisman
• We attenuate unimportant information as we begin to process for meaning with a selective filter
• Dictionary is responsible for word recognition
• More salient words will lower the threshold needed to recognize them

• Deutsch & Deutsch (1963) and Norman (1976)
• The bottleneck occurs after we process its meaning
• During pattern recognition stages instead of at the sensory store (as Broadbent suggested)
• If information is pertinent we attend to it once we have processed its meaning

• A deficit of attention in which one entire half of a visual scene is simply ignored
• Typically caused by a stroke that has interrupted the flow of blood to the right parietal lobe (a region of the brain that is thought to be critical inattention and selection)