Term
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Definition
| a general term that refers to awareness, thinking and mental acts |
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Term
| What are the steps of the serial model of cognition? |
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Definition
| Sensory-perceptual buffer --> short term memory --> working memory --> Declarative memory (event/conceptual) or Procedural (know how/emotions) |
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Term
| Sensory-perceptual buffer |
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Definition
| information is detected by sense organs and enters the sensory perceptual buffer... it may or may not be attended to/filtered out |
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Term
| What is the cocktail party effect and what part of the serial model does it relate to? |
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Definition
| One of the most important aspects of the environment is that we don't filter out anything related to the self. If we are at a party and it's loud (lots of stimulus and information), we will still attend to someone across the room saying our name ... for example. |
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Term
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Definition
| if the stimulus is attended to it enters the short term memory, memories here are what is in our minds right now, lasts for a few seconds |
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Term
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Definition
| our short term store has limited capacity, but there are things we can access quickly that we aren’t thinking about it right now |
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Term
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Definition
| a bottomless pit, unlimited amounts of information can be stored in this store |
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Term
| Declarative Memory and it's two branches |
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Definition
Facts and things we know...
Event and Conceptual |
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Term
| Examples of declarative memory |
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Definition
Remembering:
my phone number
postal code
what city I was born in
Meanings of words
Autobiographical information |
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Term
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Definition
| a division of the episodic memory, --> personal experiences |
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Term
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Definition
| a division of declarative memory --> factual information, what you know about how the world works and also semantics of how words work |
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Term
| Procedural Memory and what are it's two divisions? |
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Definition
memory for how to do things
Know how and emotion |
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Term
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Definition
a division of procedural knowledge
knowing how to perform basic tasks |
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Term
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Definition
| a division of procedural knowledge, having the ability to connect with others who are feeling a certain emotion, only when you have experienced that emotion for yourself |
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Term
| Examples of Procedural knowledge |
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Definition
| knowing how to walk, ride a bike, tie my shoe etc. |
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Term
| What type of memory is important for human motor performance? |
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Definition
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Term
| Give an example that illustrates the difference between procedural and declarative memory |
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Definition
| Declarative memory knows the meaning of the word shoe, whereas procedural knows to perform the task of tying your shoe |
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Term
| What are the limitations to the serial model |
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Definition
It is over simplified
It is extremely linear
ex: Sometimes only people’ short-term memory is damaged, but their long term memory is not. According the serial model, information that can’t get through short term memory should never be encoded in long term memory |
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Term
| What is a parallel system? |
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Definition
| a system in which processing is simultaneous |
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Term
| What did George Kelly mean when he said that each person had his/her own view of the world? |
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Definition
| The world around us all proceeds in the same way for everyone, but we perceive the events that occur differently than everyone else |
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Term
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Definition
| - Kelly started the cognitive tradition. He was born in 1906 and died in 1967 and had a very cognitive perspective |
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Term
| How does Kelly believe that we interpret the world |
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Definition
2 mental structures:
Constructs and Personal constructs |
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Term
| Define Kelly's "constructs" |
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Definition
a summary label for a set of observations and the meaning of them
– things that we can’t see… ex: gravity, all traits. |
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Term
| Define Kelly's "personal constructs" |
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Definition
the constructs a person routinely uses to interpret and predict
this set may be different for everyone. |
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Term
| What are personal constructs a precursor for? |
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Definition
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Term
| How does George Kelly define Personality |
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Definition
| He believes that it consists of the mental structures through which the person views reality |
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Term
| What are the three things considered when using constructs? |
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Definition
Range of convenience
Permeability
Focus of convenience |
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Term
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Definition
relates to constructs
a set of events for which that construct is applicable |
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Term
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Definition
the degree to which the range of convenience for a construct is flexible
- can it include new events or is it rigid? |
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Term
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Definition
| the point at which a construct produces the best prediction |
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Term
| If a construct is applicable to many people, will it be accurate or inaccurate? |
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Definition
| predictions will be less accurate than if the focus of convenience was smaller... i.e. it applies to less people |
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Term
| What is the CPC cycle and what are its three stages |
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Definition
a Three step process people engage in when making a decision about how to act
Circumspection
Preemption
Control |
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Term
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Definition
from the cpc cycle
tentatively taking several constructs of one's repertoire to see if they fit |
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Term
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Definition
Stage 2 of CPC cycle
- selection of one of the constructs you have come up with in circumspection |
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Term
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Definition
Stage 3 of the cpc cycle
- Phase of action --> you know how to behave |
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Term
| What theory did Lazarus and Folkman have? |
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Definition
| the theory of psychological stress |
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Term
| What are the 3 components of the Theory of Psychological Stress |
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Definition
1. Primary Appraisal - whether or not you perceive something as a threat
2. Secondary Appraisal - deciding what you should do to deal with the threat
3. Coping - actually responding to the threat |
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Term
| What does the theory of psychological stress highlight? |
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Definition
What Kelly talks about... We can all experience one thing, but our coping method may be different and result in a different perception.
It highlights unique differences |
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Term
| What does normal vs. abnormal psychological function involve? |
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Definition
successful anticipation and interpretation
Trauma and notion of controllability (when people don't have adequate constructs, they feel out of control)
Fixed role therapy |
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Term
| What is fixed role therapy? |
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Definition
| a therapeutic technique devised by Kelly in which a patient writes a self-characterization, and then the therapist gives them a new character sketch that they have to enact for a period of time. It is used to encourage people to experiment/explore away from their personal constructs |
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Term
| What did Kelly mean by "man as scientist" |
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Definition
He believed that anticipation and prediction are the main drivers of our mind. He said we are always building up and refining our theories about how the world works so we can anticipate events
- this starts at birth and we refine the theories as we grow up |
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Term
| When do children develop a sense of self? |
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Definition
| As soon as they have become aware that they are a distinct being from the rest of the world |
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Term
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Definition
Researchers put a dot on children's heads and put them in front of a mirror and their reactions are monitored. Depending on the child's development, distinct categories of responses are demonstrated.
- If they understand that the child with the dot on their head is actually them... they have a sense of self
- this shows up in dolphins and chimpanzees (might be evidence that self is not unique to humans?) |
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Term
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Definition
- A system with structure organization and processes, we believe it is unique to humans
- A set of attributes that a person attaches to himself or herself most firmly, the attributes that the person finds it difficult or impossible to imagine himself or herself without. The term “identity” is also used in this sense. |
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Term
| What did William James see as the 3 components of the self? |
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Definition
1. Material self - our bodies, the people we care deeply about, my possessions, places etc. Anything we value because it is "mine"
2. Social self - ex: jock, nerd, firefighter
3. The Spiritual self - the ability to ponder about our existence, to perceive ourselves and know what our strengths, weaknesses and likes and dislikes |
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Term
| What is the material self |
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Definition
| Our bodies, the people we care deeply about, my possessions, places all of these things have value because they are “mine” |
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Term
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Definition
| the part of the self that engages in face-to-face interaction with others |
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Term
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Definition
| the cognitive component of the self, the sum total of beliefs we hold about ourselves |
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Term
| Self-esteem (simple definition) |
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Definition
| the evaluations (positive/negative) we have about ourselves, emotional/affective component |
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Term
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Definition
| the self we present to others, behavioural component |
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Term
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Definition
| an organized set of information, thoughts, & feelings about ourselves: cognitive representation. |
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Term
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Definition
We are more likely to remember autobiographical information that fits our self-schemas and distort/forget information that doesn't
They allow us to:
- interpret new information
- Respond appropriately to social information
- Pay attention to what is important to us |
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Term
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Definition
| whether or not someone is schematic or aschematic for a particular trait |
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Term
| Explain individual differences in self-schemas |
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Definition
people’s self-schema vary in complexity (number of self-aspects and degree of overlap among those aspects)
My beliefs about me, won’t be the same as your beliefs about you. |
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Term
| If you are high in self-complexity how will you react to successes and failures? |
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Definition
| you won't be super upset by failures, or overly happy about successes |
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Term
| Explain characteristics of persons with a complex self-schema |
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Definition
fer fewer mood swings
Suffer less from depression
Have fewer stress related illnesses
Accomplish less in a single area |
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Term
| Why is having a complex self-schema, not always a good thing? |
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Definition
| the more roles one has, the more conflict there is |
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Term
|
Definition
A way for us to acquire knowledge about ourselves
- the process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings and motives
We aren't very good at introspection... we come up with many reasons why things happen and we are influenced by circumstances, so our reasons often aren't accurate |
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Term
| What is the self-perception theory? |
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Definition
the theory that when internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain self-insight by observing their own behavior
ex: I ate a lot, so I must be hungry |
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Term
| What is the facial feedback hypothesis |
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Definition
This is involved in self-perception of emotion
- the hypothesis that changes in facial expression can lead to corresponding changes in emotion
- it is evidence for how we might infer inner states
- – hold a pen in your teeth and start to think about how you feel, then hold it in your lips and do the same … first should make you happy, second should make you sad |
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Term
| What is the social comparison theory? |
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Definition
people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others.
- This may occur particularly if there is no objective measure of a certain aspect of what you are like
- It is important to compare yourself with similar others to get semi-accurate results
- Upward comparison is comparing to people who are above you in that area, ex: beginner guitar player compares to eric Clapton (feel bad)
- Downward comparison is comparing to people who are obviously below you in the area ex: comparing your guitar skills to that of a 2 year old (feel good) |
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Term
What is the social self?
What are its two features? |
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Definition
The self we show to other people
Continuity and contrast |
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Term
|
Definition
a feature of the social self
- tomorrow you will be the same person as you are today |
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Term
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Definition
| your social identity differentiates you from others |
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Term
| What is an identity deficit? |
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Definition
| arises when a person has not formed an adequate identity and has trouble making major decisions |
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Term
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Definition
| involves incompatibility between two or more aspects of identity |
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Term
| What does baumeister see are our two main motives when presenting ourselves to others |
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Definition
Audience pleasing: designed to make others feel good
Self-construction: designed to make our behaviour match our own self-guides |
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Term
|
Definition
| Strategies used to shape what others think of us and what we think of ourselves |
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Term
| Strategic self-presentation |
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Definition
Efforts to shape others’ views of us to gain influence, power, sympathy, or approval
e.g., some women eat less in front of men to appear “feminine”
e.g., some men act “helpless” in the home to escape housework |
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Term
| What are the aspects of Jones and Pittman's Strategic self-presentation? |
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Definition
Ingratiation
Self-promotion
Intimidation
Exemplification
Supplication |
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Term
| What is the social comparison theory? |
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Definition
people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others.
- this occurs when there is no objective measure to compare yourself (ex: am I a good student? look at GPA)
- can be upward or downward
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Term
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Definition
| an accurate representation of who we are |
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Term
| why do we perform self-enhancement? |
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Definition
| to fulfill the basic need to feel good about ourselves |
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Term
| Why do we use self-verification? |
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Definition
| we want to verify that the way we see ourselves maps on to how other people see us |
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Term
| What theory relates the self-concept to self-esteem? |
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Definition
the self-discrepancy theory
- people are motivated to maintain a sense of consistency among their various beliefs and perceptions about themselves |
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Term
| What are the three domains of the self? |
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Definition
Actual self: who you are
Ought: who you believe you should be
Ideal: who you want to be |
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Term
| What are the basic standpoints? (the two points of view from which you can be judged) |
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Definition
| self and significant other |
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Term
What are the six basic types of self-state representations available?
(self-discrepancy theory) |
|
Definition
|
–Actual/own
–Actual/other
–Ideal/own
–Ideal/other
–Ought/own
–Ought/other
People may be guided by different pairs
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Term
| When does a discrepancy exist? |
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Definition
| when self-representations do not match |
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Term
| According to Higgins what is the self-discrepancy theory and what do discrepancies lead to |
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Definition
|
People comparing themselves by comparing
Actual self to ideal self
Actual self to ought self
A discrepancy causes people to feel negative emotions
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Term
| What do the negative emotions elicited by a discrepancy depend on? |
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Definition
Types of goals:
- Promotional goals
- Preventative goals |
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Term
| Failure to attain positive outcomes (promotional goals) or mismatch between actual and ideal leads to what? |
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Definition
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Term
| Promotional goals and own ideal |
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Definition
| from lack of self-fufillment, disappointment, depression |
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Term
| Promotional goals... in terms of other ideal |
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Definition
| dejection from loss of social affection, lack of pride, depression |
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Term
| What does failure to avoid negative outcomes (preventative goals) and mismatch between actual and ought lead to ? |
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Definition
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Term
| Preventative goals and own oughts |
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Definition
| agitation from self-criticism (guilt) and anxiety |
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Term
| Preventative goals and others oughts |
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Definition
| agitation from fear and threat (shame) anxiety |
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Term
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Definition
| the larger the discrepancy, the stronger our negative emotional responses. |
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Term
| Accessibility of discrepancy |
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Definition
| how often the discrepancies come to mind will influence how much they impact our emotions. |
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Term
| Define promotion focus and prevention focus |
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Definition
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Promotion focus: minimize actual/ideal discrepancies
Prevention focus: minimize actual/ought discrepancies |
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Term
| Cultures that are interdependent are driven by the ____ self |
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Definition
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Term
| Cultures that are independent (north american countries) are driven by the ____ self |
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Definition
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Term
| What do ideal discrepancies lead to? |
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Definition
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Term
what do ought discrepancies lead to ?
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Definition
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Term
| Describe research done on neurotic people and their ideal discrepancies |
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Definition
they are more likely to fall short, and this could either be because they have high standards or they aren't as good
they dwell on falling short or meeting a standard |
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Term
| How can someone reduce a discrepancy? |
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Definition
|
•people are motivated to move actual self as close as possible to the desired end state
–Change actual self
- Change desired end state |
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Term
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Definition
| self-focused attention leads us to notice self-discrepancies, motivating us either to escape self-awareness or change our behaviour |
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Term
| Describe the males private Self-consciousness study (with wine and IQ tests) |
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Definition
males high in private self-consciousness drank more wine in a second study which was a wine tasting, when they were told they did poorly on an IQ exam, than if they were told they did well...
males low in private self-consciousness drank the same amount regardless of the feedback about the IQ test
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Term
| Are men or women more likely to engage in alcohol involved self-handicapping? |
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Definition
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Term
| Describe the halloween candy study in 1972 about self-awareness |
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Definition
|
•On Halloween they put a big bowl of candy outside the door… put a camera to watch the kids getting the candy.
•They put a little sign above the candy bowl saying please only take one.
•Then they said what if we increase their self-focused attention… so they put a mirror above the bowl (much more likely to only take one candy.) Being focused on yourself makes you aware that your behaviour is not matching a particular standard
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Term
| Describe the steps of the self-awaeness theory |
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Definition
1. You come across a self-focusing cue in the environment (mirror, camera, audience)
2. The cue creates a state of self-awareness
3. You compare your current thoughts or behaviour to your internal standards or expectations for yourself
4. If there's a match, you feel good
5. If not, you either change your behaviour so it matches your standards and feel great, if you can't change your behaviour you feel bad
or you flee from the state of self-awareness as quickly as possible |
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Term
| What is private self-consciousness? |
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Definition
| The tendency to introspect about inner thoughts and feelings |
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Term
| Public self-consciousness |
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Definition
| The tendency to focus on outer images -- to see ourselves as others see us |
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Term
| People have difficulty controlling their self-focus. What are ironic processes? |
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Definition
|
–The harder we try to inhibit a thought, feeling, or behavior, the less likely it is that we can do so.
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Term
|
Definition
Leary thinks self-esteem is like a barometer that indicates when our relational value goes up
he thinks that we are alwayst trying to boost our relational value |
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Term
| What is relational value? |
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Definition
| how desirable we are to others |
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Term
| What are the 4 mechanisms of self-enhancement? |
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Definition
|
1. Self-serving cognitions
2. Self-handicapping
3. Downward social comparisons
4. BIRGing
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Term
Self-serving cognitions:
Self-serving attributions |
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Definition
We attribute our successes to personal/internal causes & failures to external causes.
Ex: the + or - 7 seconds for skiiers
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Term
| When are we more likely to engage in self-serving attributions? |
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Definition
| when we freely chose to engage in the behaviour and when the results are going to be public aka people will know about it |
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Term
Self-serving cognitions:
Autobiographical biases |
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Definition
biases about our past selves
ex:if you stopped swimming a long time a go you may bias your memory and think you were really good in the past, if you still swim you probably don’t think you were that great and are much better now .. (We change our memories to make us feel good about ourselves.. Maintain or enhance how we feel about ourselves)
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Term
Self-serving cognitions:
Optimistic predictions |
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Definition
Unrealistic optimism about our own futures
optimistic when predicting our own future compared to others |
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Term
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Definition
| – if I expect the worst outcome, it’s not going to hurt as much – people who are high on this engage in behaviours that prevent the failure from happening |
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Term
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Definition
|
•If unsure of success on a task we value and feel we should do well (based on past performance or self-schema), we develop an “excuse” before the task in case of failure.
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Term
| What are the two types of self-handicapping? |
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Definition
|
•People can create obstacles that reduce the likelihood they will succeed (e.g., reduced effort, failure to prepare, use of drugs & alcohol)
•People do not create obstacles but do devise ready-made excuses in case they fail.
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Term
| How has our culture predisposed men to engage in self-destructive behaviour |
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Definition
| : they learn they have “no excuses” -- they must always be ready, capable, and able to work at the same high pace. It was inevitable that they would have to find excuses for why they couldn’t always be perfect. |
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Term
| What type of people often use self-handicapping and why? |
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Definition
| self-oriented perfectionists and Type A’s, both of whom use self-handicapping more because their self-concepts are based on performance |
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Term
| Downward social comparison |
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Definition
|
•A method of self-enhancement where you compare yourself to people who are worse off or inferior to you on a dimension that threatens your self-esteem.
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Term
|
Definition
|
we want you to take what you are usually like and compare yourself to the “Star” the student getting all of the attention, scholarships etc. People felt very motivated… maybe the could be me, and strived
- if they were supposed to compare the best self to the super star, they felt bad if they were still falling short compared to the star
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Term
|
Definition
basking in reflected glory: enhancing our self-esteem by identifying or claiming afilliation with a successful group
cut off reflected failure: disregarding affiliation with an unsucessful goup
ex: of the football team |
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Term
| Self-evaluation maintenance theory |
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Definition
|
•The theory that one’s self-esteem can be threatened by another individual’s behavior and that the level of threat is determined by both the closeness of the other individual & the personal relevance of the behavior.
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Term
| are depressed/low self-esteem people more realistic or are better-adjusted peers? |
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Definition
| depressed/low self-esteem |
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Term
| Pros and cons of positive illusions |
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Definition
|
•So, positive illusions may promote happiness, health, and motivation to care for others and work productively.
•But straying too far from reality can be self-destructive.
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Term
| Positive illusions: Above average effect |
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Definition
|
We are driven to be above average and so we tend to believe that we are above average
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Term
| Positive illusions: unrealistic optimism |
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Definition
|
believing that ones own outcomes and futures will be better than others
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Term
| Positive illusions: Illusion of control |
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Definition
| idea that we think we have more control over things than we actually do (especially with luck or chance) |
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