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| reasoning from specific to general, e.g. all life depends on water, mankind is life, therefore man depends on water |
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| reasoning from general to specific - if premises are true then conclusion will be true |
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| taking the world/reality at face value - it is how we perceive it |
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| a probability process in nature whose evolution we can analyze successfully |
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| evolution which led to functionalism |
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| Wundt's student who extended introspection to cover all mental activity |
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| less on nature of mental activity, more a focus on function of mental activity |
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| parallel distributed processing |
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| neurons operate in parallel and individual connections participate in many parts of information storage or processing |
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| all or nothing propagation of neuronal firing once threshold of excitation (55-65mv) has been crossed |
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| examines relationship between mind and matter, consciousness and the brain (Descartes) |
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| certain practices are better than others to achieve an end, and we 'evolve' continually better processes |
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proximity - when close together we connect them
similarity - grouping similar object
continuation - see things in cont.
closure - tend to close incomplete objects |
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| emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, olfaction; includes amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cingulate gyrus |
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| different results that lead to same conclusion; dissociation (affects one thing but not another) and association (one thing can affect two or more tasks) |
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| area of visual field which stimulates a cell |
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| area that is visible at present moment |
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| arousal/expenditure of energy |
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| conservation of energy, rest/digest/repair/reproduce |
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| contralateral organization |
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| brain hemisphere controls opposite side of body |
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| process of matching representations of organized sensory input to stored representations in memory in order to understand what we are seeing |
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| information from the general is used to recognize the stimulus; interpretation (e.e. word superiority effect - words as a whole are stronger than letters, thus we can read when parts are missing) |
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| info from physical stimulus used to recognize what it is; assimilates properties to make a whole perception |
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| first psychology lab - introspection |
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| dualism - construct knowledge from that which is certain - methodological doubt, "bedfore we can know what is real, we must doubt everything we know" |
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| study of knowledge, what we can know |
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| how we obtain that knowledge |
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| optical illusion - can be perceived 2 ways but not both at same time - example of how brain constructs reality |
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| EF, problem solving, planning, goal setting, affect regulation, attention, decisions, personality |
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| somatosensory cortex/assn areas |
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| language, comprehension, limbic system, facial recognition |
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| restriction on how much info can be processed at once |
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| failure of selection in time and space |
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space - change blindness
time - selective attention |
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| failure to detect physical changes in scene |
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| more than one stimulus attended to |
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| short period where information is not registered |
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| figure-ground - can only see one percept at a time |
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| ability to understand intent of an observed action then copy it |
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| copying actions without awareness or intent |
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| impairment in speech - Broca's - unintelligible words; Wernicke's - intelligible words but word salad; impaired comprehension |
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| impairment in voluntary motor control |
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| neurons that enable the experiencing/sensation of another to be felt |
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| illusion of stimuli presented in quick succession, e.g. flip book |
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| perception of stimuli belonging in discrete categories; failure to perceive gradations in stimuli |
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| mental image of visual perception |
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| average object that represents something in the brain |
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| many different instances of each object category, e.g. chairs |
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| construct in which object is presented in statistical patterns of ones and zeros, as in a computer |
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| Baddeley Hitch model - temporary storage for execution of complex mental tasks; central executive which includes visuospatial scratchpad and phonological loop |
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| memory placed in near permanent storage thru consolidation - diffuse not localized to midbrain |
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| recognition by components model |
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| looks at 3D object using various shapes (geons) to represent that object |
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| works with feature matching, uses the average object - prototype |
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| type of long term memory, facts, ideas, events (episodic), aka explicit memory |
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| general knowledge of things in the world and meanings |
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| information about yourself |
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procedural priming - consequences of perceptual learning
conceptual priming - results in facilitated processing of the meaning of a word
Priming reduces the cognitive effort to recall information |
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| anterograde amnesic case after removal of part of temporal lobe (hippocampus) - no new memories, and retrograde loss in graded fashion with loss of most recent memories most impacted |
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| act of learning by thinking about meaning of new material, connecting it to other ideas to create additional information |
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| level of attention given to learning something, paying attention to more and more detail; moves from shallow (perceptual aspects) to deep (elaborated aspects) - more influence on what is encoded vs how well it is encoded |
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| transfer appropriate processing |
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| the principle that processing at encoding is effective to the extent is overlaps with the processing to be performed at retrieval, i.e. how well you recall the info is based on recalling the way you learned it, or type of processing |
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| encoding specificity principle |
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| ability to remember a stimulus depends on the similarity between the way the stimulus is processed at encoding and the way it is processed at test |
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| with purpose - both incidental and intentional depend on level of processing |
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| memory is better if we generate the information rather than having it presented....also experiencing an event is better than having it told to us |
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| encoding across multiple trials with the same information is optimal - i.e. spacing > massed practice |
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| many trials with same stimulus repeated without interruption/rote learning |
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| trials with same stimulus spread out with other stimuli in between |
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| long term memory formation |
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| recall better if physical environment matches study environment |
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| recall better if mood at the time matches mood during study - aka mood-congruent memory effect |
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| ascribing a recollection to an incorrect time, person or place |
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| deja vu - when we encounter a stimulus that although not previously encountered is semantically or perceptually similar to the previous |
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two types: belief bias - background knowledge about the ways of the world and personal beliefs unconsciously influences memory to reshape it to form consistent with expectations
consistency bias - results from the often erroneous belief that one's attitudes are stable over time, e.g. when talking about how happy you used to be, biased by how happy they are currently |
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wrote Memory - research on retention/retrieval
Examined how memory for events/stimuli changes as the retention interval (time between encoding and retrieval) increases.
Coined term 'serial position effect' - recency and primacy of recalled items of a list |
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| new learning interferes with previously learned material (if different material; similar content does not interfere) |
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| previously learned material can interfere with attempts to learn something new |
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| episodic memory for emotionally charged events |
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| fake memories when person remembers something they didn't experience - often seen in court eyewitness accounts |
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| studies human memory; showed memories can be changed by what we are told (suggestion) - related to false memory syndrome. |
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| isolation or von Restorff effect |
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| predicts unusual sounding items will be remembered better than normal items (sticks out like sore thumb items) |
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| also helps people connect past experiences with present action |
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| saying the color of the ink not the word itself - response inhibition test |
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| more advanced response inhibition with problem solving and affect regulation |
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| natural/automatic, as in reading word instead of naming color in stroop test |
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| coding information about the order of events in working memory |
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| the assessment of one's performance while the task is being performed |
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relatively brief period of synchronized responses that indicate evaluation of an internal or external event as significant
- can include bodily responses, facial expression, subjective evaluation
- 6/7 universal emotions: joy, sadness, anger, disgust, fear, surprise and contempt
- mood is longer lasting and more diffuse
- emotions contain both attitudes (beliefs, preferences, predispositions) and motivations |
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model that analyzes emotion by looking at arousal and valence interactions
- arousal: bodily changes that occur in emotion such as HR, sweating
- valence: subjective positive or negative quality of the emotional response
e.g. high arousal and positive affect = enthusiastic; high arousal with negative affect = anxious/jittery |
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| approach/withdrawal model |
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| similar to circumplex model: attributes that make someone approachable/likable or unlikable |
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| to ask a participant to choose among different options on the assumption that an emotional assessment of the option partly determines the choice |
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| participants directly report their emotional reaction, mood or attitude |
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| indication of ANS arousal via sweat glands |
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| Pavlov - stimulus precedes response; unconditioned stimulus leads to UCR; is paired with neutral stimulus, then NS becomes CS and begins alone to elicit CR |
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| instrumental/operant conditioning |
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| behavior in response to stimulus is predicted based on punishment or reward |
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| arousal, stress and memory |
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| arousal theory - sweet spot |
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| affective primacy hypothesis |
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| proposes that emotional stimuli are processed relatively automatically, making fewer demands on limited cognitive resources than do other types of stimuli |
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| hard problem of consciousness |
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| idea developed by David Chalmers - question of how and why we have qualia or phenomenal experiences - these are quite subjective |
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| the idea that the mind is not limited to brain or body - extends outside and reacts with other aspects in reality, which is included in consciousness |
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| necessary and sufficient conditions |
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necessary - a condition that must be satisfied in order to obtain a result
sufficient - if these conditions are obtained, it will guarantee the result
necessary MUST be there, but may not be sufficient to obtain the result |
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| philosophical question, also called sorites paradox: if you remove a grain from a heap of sand, does that make it a non-heap? at which point does it become a non-heap? |
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| systematic desensitization |
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behavioral therapy based on classical conditioning, developed by Wolpe in 1950s. Therapy aims to remove fear response of a phobia and substitute a relaxation response to the conditioned stimulus by gradually using counter conditioning.
Exposure treatment/extinction is similar. |
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direct realism/perception/common sense realism
- the world is as we perceive it, vs. idealism which asserts our mind constructs reality. |
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| or scientific realism: positive epistemic attitude toward the content of our best theories and models, recommending belief in both observable and unobservable aspects of the world described by the sciences |
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| causal theory of perception |
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| John Locke - the world interacts with our senses and causes ideas in our minds; Locke's use of idea is broad, as any mental item or experience can qualify as one |
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| intrinsic vs extrinsic properties |
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intrinsic is the nature or quality of the object
extrinsic has to do with the context it exists in (e.g. intrinsic density is affected by extrinsic gravity) |
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