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CogNeuro Exam 2
cog neuro topics
159
Psychology
Undergraduate 4
10/15/2010

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Term
mind-body problem
Definition
how does the physical substance of our brain give rise to our thoughts, feelings, & actions?
Term
Descartes & Dualism
Definition
-mind & body interact in pineal gland
-sensory stimulation --> vibrations in the body.
Term
dual-aspect theory
Definition
mind & brain are 2 explanations for the same thing.
Term
Reductionism
Definition
cognitive, mind based concepts will be replaced by biological constructs.
Term
Galen
Definition
identified major structures in the brain.

misguided: mental experience = ventricles.
Term
phrenology
Definition
different parts of cortex serve different functions.

cortical size & bumps.

although flawed, helped develop FUNCTIONAL SPECIALIZATION!!!
Term
computer metaphor of cognition
Definition
incoming stimuli --> extraction of "physical" properties --> filter --> extraction of "abstract" properties.

*understand steps need to perform task without reference to the brain.
Term
parallel processing
Definition
different info processed at the same time.
Term
top-down processing
Definition
influence of later stages on processing earlier ones.
Term
challenges to cog neuro
Definition
functional imaging tells us WHERE cognition occurs, not HOW.

new form of phrenology. important to look at how brain systems interact.
Term
interactivity
Definition
later stages of processing can begin before earlier ones are complete.
Term
temporal resolution
Definition
accuracy in measuring an event.
Term
spatial resolution
Definition
accuracy in measuring WHERE an event occurs.
Term
modularity
Definition
certain cog processes = limited in type of info they process.
Term
domain specificity
Definition
cog process dedicated to 1 TYPE OF INFO.
Term
thalamus
Definition
traffic control for neurons

direct them where they need to go.
Term
glia
Definition
glue

waste removal/chemical cleanup

modulate neurotransmission: receive & release NTs.
Term
signals coming from postsynaptic dendrites are...
Definition
GRADED POTENTIALS
Term
efferent neuron
Definition
receives info and sends it to the MUSCLES.

output = very SPECIFIC.

input = NOT very specific.
Term
afferent neuron
Definition
gets info from PERIPHERY and sends it to the BRAIN.

input = SPECIFIC

output = not specific.
Term
sodium-potassium pump
Definition
constantly pumping out sodium & bringing in potassium

--> build up of NEGATIVE charge inside the cell.
Term
Action potential
Definition
1. Depolarization = sodium channels open and come rushing into cell. **more + inside**

2. sodium channels close.

3. Potassium channels open. Pump K+ OUT. **more (-) inside the cell**

4. K+ channels continue to operate --> HYPERPOLARIZATION.

**REFRACTORY PERIOD**
Term
rate of responding (spiking rate) relates to...
Definition
informational code carried by that neuron.
Term
regional functional specialization
Definition
neurons responding to similar types of info = grouped together.
Term
cervical enlargement
Definition
supplies UPPER limbs.
Term
lumbar enlargement
Definition
supplies LOWER limbs.
Term
gray matter
Definition
neuronal cell bodies
Term
white matter
Definition
axons, myelin, glia cells.
Term
association fibers
Definition
communicate within ONE hemisphere.
Term
projection
Definition
brain stem & spinal cord --> cerebral cortex.
Term
commissural fibers
Definition
crosses 2 hemispheres.
Term
Cerebrospinal fluid
Definition
**provides PROTECTIVE cushion for the brain.

dense group of capillaries that secrete CSF.
Term
third ventricle
Definition
middle between 2 hemispheres. hole in center.
Term
fourth ventricle
Definition
beneath cerebellum
Term
Meninges
Definition
1. Dura mater: OPAQUE.
2. Arachnoid: carries BLOOD VESSELS.
3. Pia mater: THIN layer.
Term
precentral gyrus
Definition
primary motor cortex.

"little man"
Term
postcentral gyrus
Definition
primary somatosensory cortex
Term
Broadmann's areas
Definition
CYTOARCHITECTURE.

regions defined by layered composition of cells.
Term
Basal Ganglia
Definition
thalamus. caudate. striatum. amygdala. putamen. globus pallidus.

***ACTION & THOUGHT***

Huntington's disease: hyperkinetic

Parkinson's: hypokinetic
Term
Limbic system
Definition
relating organism to its environment

*amygdala. hippocampus. cingulate cortex. mamillary bodies.
Term
Diencephalon
Definition
THALAMUS & HYPOTHALAMUS

1. relay system between all sensory organs. except smell.

2. bodily functions/needs
Term
superior colliculi
Definition
involved in programming fast eye movements.

VISION
Term
inferior colliculi
Definition
part of AUDITORY pathway.
Term
cerebellum
Definition
dexterity & smooth MOVEMENT.
Term
medulla
Definition
vital functions

*sleep/wake cycle.
Term
mental representations
Definition
properties of OUTSIDE world.

priming task
Term
neural representations
Definition
how properties of outside world are manifested in NEURAL SIGNAL.
Term
single-cell recordings
Definition
INVASIVE: placed in or around neuron.

**# of ACTION POTENTIALS per second.

NOT typically done in humans.
Term
ERP
Definition
ON scalp.

NON-INVASIVE.

measures SUMMED electrical potentials.
Term
local representation
Definition
*GRANDMOTHER cells.

*info about a stimulus/event = carried in ONE neuron.

if we want to know how brain codes for color red, look for area of brain that codes for red.

external stimulus --> encoding --> neural activity --> decoding --> mental operation.
Term
Cells of V1: SIMPLE
Definition
BOTTOM of hierarchy

*respond to SINGLE POINTS of light.

*PARTICULAR about location.

ON/OFF regions.
Term
Cells of V1: COMPLEX
Definition
*NUMEROUS!!!!!

*NOT picky about location.

*directionally sensitive.

*LARGER RFs.

*don't respond to points of light.
Term
Cells of V1: HYPERCOMPLEX
Definition
if crosses certain plain, neuron turns OFF.

*lets you know EXACTLY WHERE an object is.
Term
WHERE pathway
Definition
MOTION & SPATIAL location
Term
WHAT pathway
Definition
DETAILED FEATURES, form, & OBJECT IDENTITY
Term
Grandmother cells
Definition
respond to ONLY 1 stimulus

*if cells get damaged = no memory for stimulus.

*brain would have to be huge.
Term
fully distributed representation
Definition
info about stimulus is carried in ALL neurons.
Term
sparse distribution representation
Definition
info about stimulus = carried in SMALL PROP. of neurons.

ex. AVERTED GAZE IMAGE.

ex. FACES
Term
Neural codes: Rate coding
Definition
info of neuron RELATED TO APs per sec.
Term
neural codes: Temporal coding
Definition
SYNCHRONY of neurons to code info.

ex. code SAME STIMULUS
Term
neural codes: Population coding
Definition
coding by GROUP of neurons.

AVERAGES of group.
Term
EEG
Definition
recording of VOLTAGE POTENTIAL CHANGES over time

*see how areas of brain = communicating.
Term
CMR: common mode rejection
Definition
CLEANS up the SIGNAL.

(signal + noise) - (noise) = CLEAN SIGNAL!!!
Term
EEG generated by:
Definition
1. Action potentials

2. Synaptic activity: ***EPSPs & IPSPs. SUMMATE!!!

**depends on ORIENTATION OF DIPOLE.
Term
EPSP
Definition
ACTIVE sink. PASSIVE source.

Na+ rushes IN & is pumped OUT.

Dipole: (-) inside.
Term
IPSP
Definition
PASSIVE sink. ACTIVE source.

K+ rushes OUT. then IN.

dipole: (+)???
Term
ERPs
Definition
10/20 system.

EEG signal = AVERAGED over many events.
Term
Mental Chronometry
Definition
in ERP, DIFFERENT PEAKS reflect functioning of DIFFERENT COG. STAGES.
Term
N170 component of ERP
Definition
sensitive to FACES!!!!
Term
Additive factors method
Definition
dividing REACTION TIMES into different stages.
Term
exogenous
Definition
related to properties of STIMULUS.
Term
endogenous
Definition
related to properties of TASK.
Term
inverse problem
Definition
difficulty of locating sources of electrical activity from measurements.

SOLVED by -->

Dipole modeling: assuming how many dipoles contribute to signal recorded at the scalp.
Term
Structural Imaging
Definition
CT scan & MRI

benefits of MRI:
-NO radiation.
-BETTER spatial resolution.
-DISCRIMINATION between white & gray matter.
Term
Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
Definition
measures WHITE MATTER ORGANIZATION.

specific pathways between regions.

visualize WHITE MATTER ATROPHE.
Term
MRI
Definition
*excites HYDROGEN ATOMS.

*in resting state: ions = spread out & disorganized.

apply STRONG, MAGNETIC FIELD.

**MEASURE: RELAXING OF IONS

DRAWBACK = NOISE.
Term
Voxel-based morphometry (VBM)
Definition
WHITE & GRAY matter density in each voxel.

Differences between groups: TAXI DRIVERS!!!
Term
PET
Definition
measures BLOOD FLOW.

Radioactive TRACER INJECTED.

INVASIVE.

LIMITED TIME to achieve good signal.

*EFFECTIVE SPATIAL resolution.

*BLOCKED design necessary
Term
fMRI
Definition
NO radioactivity

measures BLOOD OXYGENATION. -->

BOLD response. tells us how brain sends oxygen to areas that are more ACTIVE.

*supply exceeds metabolic demand.

scanned many times.

BLOCKED or EVENT-RELATED design.
Term
Peterson et al. PET study.
Definition
CAKE.

identify regions associated with certain tasks like WORD RECOGNITION.

*SUBTRACT areas & figure out which ones = IMPORTANT for task.

FLAWED: PURE INSERTION. -->

assume that adding a different component to task does not change the operation of other tasks.
Term
Factorial Designs
Definition
can't tickle ourselves.

SELF movement or someone ELSE.

*use SUBTRACTIVE LOGIC like other experiment.

*tactile sensation differs based on who is doing the touching = STRONG about this model.

**if you're doing the moving, you know the outcome of your movements. not as much activity in somato. cortex. send inhibitory signals to somato. cortex.
Term
Parametric designs
Definition
*no need for perfect baseline.

*Treat IV as CONTINUOUS measure.

**Dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex (working memory): limited amount of info you can process at one time. downward U.
Term
Smoothing
Definition
INCREASES signal.

compensates for individual differences in anatomy.

*increasing contrast around areas we think are active.
Term
inhibition
Definition
suppression of activity of a brain region by another region/process.
Term
excitation
Definition
increase in activity of brain region by another region or process.
Term
block design
Definition
stimuli that belong together in ONE condition.
Term
event-related design
Definition
different conditions = SEPARATED for analysis purposes.
Term
retinocentric space
Definition
locations on SENSORY surfaces.
Term
egocentric space
Definition
locations in relation to the BODY.
Term
allocentric space
Definition
location of objects IN RELATION to EACH OTHER.
Term
inattentional blindness
Definition
failure to consciously see something because attention is directed away from it.
Term
endogenous orienting
Definition
guided by the GOALS of the PERCEIVER.

*finding BLUE T in mixture of L's and T's.
Term
exogenous orienting
Definition
guided by CUE or EXTERNAL.
Term
Feature-Integration Theory/evidence for & against.
Definition
perceptual features are coded in PARALLEL & PRIOR to ATTENTION.

*unique perceptual feature = detected WITHOUT ATTENTION = POP OUT.

Evidence for:
*pop out not affected by # of ITEMS to be searched.

Against:
*early selection model.
*evidence of LATE SELECTION in NEG. PRIMING.
Term
Negative Priming
Definition
picture with red & blue pics.

*takes longer to name a red dog when it was just blue.
Term
Pseudo-neglect
Definition
*BIAS towards LEFT visual field.

*RIGHT PARIETAL lobe = richer rep. of space.
-damage --> severe problems.
-**affects left side of space!!!!
Term
Patients with NEGLECT
Definition
*can orient to CUE on left or right.

*problem in SHIFTING ATTENTION from right cue --> left target.

**PROBLEM IN SHIFTING ATTENTION.

**WITHOUT CUE, IGNORES stimuli in LEFT visual field.

**ENDOGENOUS PROBLEM.
Term
Balint's syndrome
Definition
1. inability to perceive more than one object at a time. (SIMULTAGNOSIA)

2. fixation of gaze. (optic apraxia)

3. inability to reach in proper direction for object. (optic ataxia)
Term
Simultagnosia
Definition
*basic visual abilities normal.

*UNABLE to locate object VERBALLY or by reaching/pointing.

*IMPAIRED at LOCATING SOUNDS.

*can state which side of body part touched.

**RECOGNIZE SINGLE objects but NO SPATIAL relationships between them.

*can group several PARTS into WHOLES. like FACES!!
Term
Hemi-Spatial Neglect
Definition
IGNORE HALF of visual field.

INFERIOR PARIETAL LOBULE

line bisection. cancellation tests. copying. drawing.
Term
Neglect as a disorder of attention.
Definition
**Occipital cortex responds to stimuli.

**can detect objects on left if cued there.

**Affects auditory & tactile judgements.

SOUNDS = MISLOCALIZED.

VISUAL EXTINCTION suggests different perceptual reps = competing for attention. = FROG & SUN.
Term
Neglect vs. Blindsight
Definition
Neglect:
*lack of awareness NOT restricted to VISION.
*WHOLE OBJECTS may be processed IMPLICITLY.
*eyes DO NOT LOOK at neglected region.
*Neglected region = EGOCENTRIC.

Blindsight:
*lack of awareness IS RESTRICTED to VISION.
*IMPLICIT knowledge limited to BASIC visual discriminations.
*EYES do NOT look at blind spot.
*Neglected region = RETINOCENTRIC.
Term
types of neglect
Definition
Body neglect = failure to groom half of the body.

Near space neglect = visual search of array of external objects.

*Double dissociation between personal & near space.
Term
Object vs. Space based neglect
Definition
Space-based neglect = *only attend to RIGHT side of column with letters & circles A's on right side.

Object neglect = can't detect differences on LEFT side of space even when object falling into right side of space.
Term
Does the hippocampal region contain a spatial map?
Definition
*SPATIAL maps = ALLOCENTRIC. i.e. ind. of animal's viewpoint.

*PLACE CELLS respond maximally when animal is in certain location.

ex. WATER MAZE. hippocampal lesions fail to learn location.

**PARIETAL lobes = linking SENSORY & EGOCENTRIC maps.

**HIPPOCAMPUS = stores LT representations of space. ALLOCENTRIC.
Term
TMS
Definition
*study perception, awareness, treatment of movement disorders, anxiety disorders.

*NON-INVASIVE.

*based on FARADAY's principle of electromagnetic induction. electrical current passes through another one & creates energy in another nearby.

*electrical field induces neuronal activity.

*introduces NOISE into a neural process.

*Not spatially focal.

***have to have HYPOTHESIS for every comparison.

SOLUTION TO SUPERFICIAL REGIONS = can test with other ANIMALS.

*simultaneously activates many neurons.

*MAXIMAL activation will have LOWEST SIGNAL to NOISE RATIO. will not corr. with peak times reported in ERP.
Term
Neuropsych & TMS
Definition
useful in study of ABNORMAL BRAINS.

Damaged brains may have undergone PLASTICITY.

causes a REVERSIBLE LESION.

INFERENCES about function of normal brain.

TMS can be used to REPRODUCE TEST EFFECTS associated with NEGLECT.

can induce SPEECH DISRUPTIONS & IMPAIR VERBAL RECALL & PIC-WORD matching.
Term
Distal-stimulation method of TMS.
Definition
give LOW DOSE of TMS before task, which REDUCES BLOOD FLOW, then increased with performance.
Term
EEG (article)
Definition
*research cog function in children

*ongoing electrical activity

*diagnose & manage EPILEPSY.

*CORTICOL DEV. with age

*comparing LEARNING DISABLED with normal groups showed MAT. LAG.
Term
ERP (article)
Definition
ongoing EEG during cog. event/stimulus.

waveform affected by stim. modality & cog process (ex. memory)
Term
Visual processing/face processing (article)
Definition
*binding problem: individual visual features grouped together. latency decreases with age.

*top down processing of info.

*N170 = sensitive to FACES!!!!

*configural vs. featural processing--arrangement vs. presence.

*FUSIFORM FACE AREA = VENTRAL OCCIPITOTEMPORAL CORTEX. in response to faces.

*T5 & T6 = respond to WHOLE FACES & EYES. & scrambled faces.
Term
Dyslexia (article)
Definition
P3 deficits in dyslexic children.

*PHONOLOGICAL deficits as well.

MMN = implicated in DETECTION OF AUDITORY CHANGE.
Term
ADHD
Definition
*LATE P3 component.

*processing dysfunction

*Meth = common treatment, MASKS what's really happening.
Term
iERP
Definition
RISKY.

IMPLANT electrodes

**LOCALIZE SEIZURE ONSET in EPILEPSY.

**LIMITED in kind of CONTROL you can use.
Term
Phase-locking
Definition
when WAVES = SYNCHRONOUS.
Term
Seeing as a Constructive Process
Definition
Kanizsa Illusion = seeing the finished TRIANGLE.

**CREATION of PARIETAL LOBES.

**CONES = FOVEA.

**RODS = sensitive to LOW LEVELS of light intensity.

**GAP at back of OPTIC NERVE = BLINDSPOT.
Term
Geniculostriate Pathway
Definition
*main route TERMINATES in V1 (primary visual cortex)

RETINOTHALAMIC --> GENICULOSTRIATE path.

RETINOTECTAL

RETINOHYPOTHALAMIC or RETINOCHIASMATIC. (retina to SCN)

***SCN = DAY/NIGHT. LIGHT/DARK.

**Superior Colliculus = VISION. LOCALIZING things in space.
Term
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
Definition
6 LAYERS.

MAGNOCELLULAR = MOVEMENT.

PARVOCELLULAR = DETAIL & COLOR.
Term
Center-Surround Receptive Field
Definition
AREA of SPACE that activates a NEURON.

RESPOND to DIFFERENCES in LIGHT across RF.

ex. presence in center. absence in surround.

***ACTIVATION of neuron in response to LIGHT INSIDE receptive field, but SUPPRESSION outside of center.
Term
Primary Visual Cortex (V1)
Definition
EXTRACTS INFO from visual scene.

HIERARCHIAL view: *simple visual features COMBINED into complex ones.
Term
Cells of V1
Definition
SIMPLE cells may derive RESPONSE by COMBINING responses of several LGN center-surround CELLS.

**SIMPLE cells respond to different ORIENTATIONS.

***COMPLEX cells: COMBINING responses of SIMPLE cells. have LARGER RFs & require STIM. on ENTIRE LENGTH.
Term
Spatial arrangement of V1
Definition
Retinotopic organization = spatial arrangement of light on retina retained in response properties of V1 neurons (except INVERTED).

*FOVEAL region = important for DETAIL.
Term
Damage to V1
Definition
BLINDNESS for corr. REGION.

*Hemianopia = see HALF of a picture.

*Scotoma = BLINDSPOT in visual world.

*Quadrantanopia = 1/4 of visual field is BLIND.
Term
Blindsight
Definition
CANNOT CONSCIOUSLY report objects presented in REGION of space.

able to make SOME visual DISCRIMINATIONS.

GENICULOSTRIATE route = specialized for CONSCIOUS VISION.

FILLING IN of blind regions. IMAGE COMPLETION.
Term
Extrastriate Areas (beyond V1)
Definition
V4 = COLOR.

V5/MT = MOVEMENT.

**AREA V4 = active in COLOR VS. GRAYSCALE.

**AREA V5/MT = active in MOVING DOTS. visual movement.

Problem with color perception & area V4:

-wavelength depends on comp. of light source.

-COLOR CONSTANCY. colors = same despite lighting/position.
Term
Damage to V4
Definition
*see BLACK & WHITE.

*Corticol Achromatopsia

***Cells in V4 respond to same surface color when lighting/position changes, but cells in V1 do NOT.

ex. Chessboard picture.
Term
Movement perception & area V5/MT
Definition
*respond to particular DIRECTIONS of MOVEMENT.

*Bilateral damage = AKINETOPSIA. *STILL FRAMES*

*can detect movement in other senses.

*Akinetopsic patients can discriminate BIOLOGICAL MOTION!!!
Term
Beyond visual cortex.
Definition
Visual cortex extracts basic visual info--colors. movement. shapes. edges.

needs to make contact with other types of info:
*WHERE the object is in space.
*WHAT the object is.
Term
Model of Object Recognition
Definition
4 STAGES:

1. Early visual processing.

2. GROUPING of visual elements.

3. MATCHING grouped visual description onto a rep of the object stored in the brain.

4. ATTACHING MEANING of the object.
Term
Gestalt Grouping
Definition
LAWS:

1. proximity: things closer together = grouped.

2. similarity: things similar = grouped.

3. good continuation: see two crossing lines.

4. closure: filling in gaps. finishing a shape. ex. circle.

5. common fate: moving together go together; BIO. MOTION!!!
Term
Integrative Agnosia. seeing parts but not wholes.
Definition
AGNOSIA = disorder in OBJ. RECOGNITION.

APPERCEPTIVE agnosia: disorder of perception.

ASSOCIATIVE agnosia: disorder of MEANING.

**INTEGRATIVE agnosia = type of APPERCEPTIVE in which GROUPING PRINCIPLES = DISRUPTED.

ex. difficulty seeing a face.

Trouble with:
*deciding if objects = real or not.
*naming objects.
Term
Object constancy
Definition
recognize object from any viewpoint.

brain stores object in single viewpoint, so we need to use MENTAL ROTATION!!!

MATCHING FEATURE BY FEATURE.

***LEFT ITC (inferial temporal cortex) responds to OBJECT DESPITE VIEWPOINT or size, but

**RIGHT ITC responds in RELATION to VIEWPOINT.

2 different routes to OBJECT CONSTANCY.
Term
fMRI (article)
Definition
*hard to compare fMRI images with BEHAVIOR.

*can CONTROL INPUT & record OUTPUT.

*results: SAME-DIFF orientation = similar regardless of color. --> SOME COLOR INPUT also includes INFO ON ORIENTATION.

*Conclusion: COMBINED fMRI & BEHAVIORAL data = better neural MODELING than either one individually.

*possible to design behavioral studies based on imaging results.
Term
Primary Visual Cortex & Visual Awareness (article)
Definition
*investigate the role of V1 in visual awareness.

*PERCEPTION consists of 2 components:

1. INFORMATION analysis.
2. SUBJECTIVE AWARENESS.

*FEEDBACK connections between V1 & Extrastriate.

Lesions of V1 = loss of AWARENESS.
Term
Theories of Visual Awareness (article)
Definition
HIERARCHIAL MODEL:

*V1 = RELAY CENTER --> Extrastriate.

*does not participate in conscious rep of data.

**DISRUPTION of V1 will NOT impair awareness.


INTERACTIVE model:

*FEEDBACK LOOPS
*V1 influences CONTINUATION of info. VETO POWER.

**DISRUPTION to V1 ALWAYS impairs awareness.
Term
Blindsight (article)
Definition
DAMAGE to V1 = COMPLETE LOSS OF AWARENESS.

*report not being able to see stimuli in particular region, but can perform VISUAL DISCRIMINATIONS.

*ALTERNATIVE visual pathways still RESPONSIVE to motion. color. & object detection.

**STILL ACTIVATION of EXTRASTRIATE even though V1 impaired.

*BOTH BLINDSIGHT & EXTRASTRIATE LESIONS = support for INTERACTIVE model.
Term
Binocular rivalry (article)
Definition
ATTENTION/AWARENESS alternates between 2 MONOCULAR images.

EEG & fMRI = activity in INFEROTEMPORAL cortex. *also in PARIETAL cortex.

V1 & EXTRASTRIATE involved in binocular rivalry, but Extrastriate activation = NOT LINKED to AWARENESS alternation.

***support for INTERACTIVE MODEL.
Term
Visual detection (article)
Definition
*activity linked to conscious detection of visual target.

*AWARENESS occurring AFTER feedback from EXTRASTRIATE area.
Term
Bistable Perception (article)
Definition
**GREATER activation of MT over V1 viewing a BI-STABLE object in motion. ex. FACE/VASE image.

*bi-stable images --> increased activity of PARIETAL & FRONTAL regions.

ATTENTIONAL. have to choose which image you're going to look at.
Term
TMS & vision (article)
Definition
*TMS produces & disrupts visual stimulation.

TMS & motion:
*FEEDBACK LOOP disrupted --> during onset at MT.
*evidence for INTERACTIVE model.

Conclusion:
*V1 is necessary, but NOT SUFF. for perceptual AWARENESS.
*Visual processing can occur in V1 W/OUT AWARENESS.

*PARIETAL areas = necessary for awareness.
Term
Vision & Touch article
Definition
Mental reps. have to take into account:

-info about body movements
-SACCADIC eye movements.

*Saccadic eye movements COMPENSATE for changes in ANGLE GAZE.

Problem: SACCADIC movements DISTORT images.

*Hemicropsia (lesions in parietal cortex):
-FAILURE of SIZE CONSTANCY of horiz. extent.

Taylor-Clark et al:
-Perceived distance was greater on index than forearm.

*Vision plays a role in modulatory somato. function.

Conclusion:
-behavioral studies & brain-damaged humans help to understand how brain constructs reps. of peri-personal space from sensory inputs.
Term
Phonological Lexicon & Lexical access
Definition
1. store of words in speaker's vocabulary

2. MATCHING word to stored memory of that word.
Term
Broca's patient.
Definition
patient that UNDERSTANDS speech, but can only articulate "TANTAN"

LESION = POSTERIOR INFERIOR LEFT FRONTAL LOBE.
Term
Wernicke
Definition
*DIFFICULTIES UNDERSTANDING speech

*intact “paraphasic” speech.

*Lesion = LEFT SUPERIOR TEMPORAL GYRUS.

*close to primary auditory cortex

*region for ACOUSTIC SPEECH IMAGERY.
Term
Wernicke-Lichtheim Model
Definition
A = ACOUSTIC WORD IMAGES. (wernicke’s area)

M = MOTOR word images. (broca’s area)

B = WORD MEANINGS dist. across cortex. *cortical brain regions.

a = input to A. (ex. Primary auditory cortex.)

m = motor output.

*ARCUATE FIBERS that run between broca and wernicke.

*can make predictions based on this wiring model and say what happens if I do this or that?
Term
7 Forms of Aphasia
Definition
1 = Broca’s aphasia:
*comprehension intact, but repetition & speech impaired.

2 = Wernicke’s aphasia:
*COMP. & REP impaired. speech = fluent.

3 = conduction aphasia: disconnecting wernicke from broca.
*Impaired REPETITION. speech = fluent. comprehension is intact.

4 = transcortical motor aphasia: disconnect cortical region from broca.
*Repetition & comprehension intact. SPEECH impaired.

5 = aphemia. Lesion area important for motor commands.
*Spontaneous & repetition = impaired. But comp. fully intact. *IMPAIR EVERYTHING EXCEPT COMP.
*Don’t make it out to muscles.

6 = transcortical sensory aphasia.
*Rep. intact. COMP. IMPAIRED. speech = paraphasic

7 = pure word deafness: cut off input to language system.
*REP & COMP. IMPAIRED. speech & auditory acuity normal.
Term
Motor Theory of Speech Perception
Definition
*Auditory signal = matched to motor reps. that would be required to produce the sound rather than acoustic rep.

*Sounds = recognized by inferring articulatory movements. What kinds of movements it takes to make those sounds.

*Watkins & Paus (2004) → motor cortex activated by speech perception!

*McGurk Effect: video. “bababa” vs. “dadada”; having motor info changes how we interpret what words are.
Term
Separating Motor & Acoustic Components of Speech
Definition
*Proposed “what” & “how” pathways.

*Ventral “WHAT” pathway:

• Links primary AUDITORY cortex w/ ventral TEMPORAL lobe areas specialized for SPEECH.

• Make contact with structures important for memory.

*Dorsal “HOW” pathway:

• Primary AUDITORY cortex connected to FRONTAL lobes via ANGULAR GYRUS.

• ANGULAR GYRUS (where TEMPORAL & PARIETAL lobes meet) active when silently articulating relative to thinking.
Term
Dual routes for speech & perception: WHAT & HOW
Definition
*Two ways to produce speech.

*brain damage = UNABLE to repeat NON-WORDS, but CAN REPEAT REAL words! -->

*when non-words, rely on WHAT pathway. If know the word, rely on ventral WHERE pathway.

*Ways to make speech:
• *get input and send to motor outputs.
• *activate stored memories. Generate ideas. & send to Broca’s.
Term
Cohort model
Definition
***during speech recognition there is competition between similar sounding words.

1. “cohort” activated by first sound of a word. Ex. “e”

2. Candidate words eliminated as more info is revealed. ex. “ele”

3. Word matching occurs at UNIQUENESS POINT (ex. Eleph) when evidence is consistent with only one word.

*Recognizing spoken words: cohort model.

o Reaction time priming shows that UNCOMMON WORDS = ACTIVATED LESS.

• “spe” → speed > species.

*However, semantic context does not alter the pattern.
• Suggests semantics occur late (ex. After spoken word recognition)

o Evidence for late influence of semantics comes from N400 in ERPs.

• example from book. DUTCH TRAINS. *EARLY PATTERN MATCHING. Both are colors and sour is completely out of context.
Term
Semantic memory
Definition
**knowledge of the world—MEANING of words & objects.

*central role in human cognition in that it lies at the interface of language, memory, and perception.
• Amodal. i.e. independent of input or output modality.

*Feature-based theories of semantic memory:

•HIERARCHIAL organizations (ex. Collins & quinlan)

•Similar concepts.

Ex. Lion and tiger share similar features and would tend to be represented together (categorization as an emergent property)
Term
Collin & Quinlan's Model of Hierarchial Org.
Definition
•WEB of associations in brain.

•Participants faster at classifying robin as a bird than as animal.-->

•assume that this is because animal is further up the hierarchy and takes longer to access.

However, can also be explained by FREQUENCY OF CO-OCCURRENCE between concepts -->

(robin-bird occur more frequently together than robin-animal.)

Not all concepts have hierarchial relationship.
Ex. Truth, justice, law.

*Most contemporary models do not assume hierarchial.
Term
Categorization of Concepts
Definition
•We group SIMILAR things into categories.

•Some = GENETICALLY PREDETERMINED to be categorized.

•patients who LOST all knowledge of INANIMATE objects, but PRESERVED memory of ANIMALS, FOOD, & FLOWERS.

*Sensory vs. functional distinction:

*SENSORY = defined by sensory (ex. Visual) properties. Animals. -->
*******ABOUT knowledge = stored.

*FUNCTIONAL = defined by functional attributes. INANIMATE objects. WHAT it’s used for = stored.

*semantic categories differ in the extent to which functional vs. sensory info is represented.
Term
Categorization Problems
Definition
Food: is represented categorically.

Colors: NAME, but NOT RETRIEVE them.

*Possible to have selective difficulties in particular knowledge domains that do not reveal themselves as other category effects.

*Body parts:
• AUTOPAGNOSIA = trouble localizing body parts on themselves, on pics, or on others.

Actions & Verbs:
• Action = semantic memory.
• Verb = grammatical property.

*Proper names:
• PROPER NAME ANOMIA = severe difficulties in retrieving proper names.

*Numbers: argued that number knowledge is a true categorical distinction.
Term
Understanding & Producing Sentences
Definition
*PARSING = process of assigning a SYNTACTIC structure to words.

*GARDEN PATH sentences = sentence in which the early part BIASES SYNTACTIC INTERPRETATION that turns out to be incorrect.
• Ex. The horse raced past the barn fell.

*PHONOLOGICAL ST MEMORY STORE: *may assist syntactic parsing.
Term
Is Broca’s aphasia a syntactic disorder?
Definition
• Agrammatism: loss of grammar
Term
Other syntax errors.
Definition
*Freudian slip: substitution of one word for another that is sometimes thought to reflect the hidden intentions of the speaker.

*Malapropisms: speech error that consists of a word with a similar phonological form to the intended word.

*Spoonerisms: speech error in which initial consonants are swapped between words.

*Tip of the tongue: person knows the word that he/she wants to say, but is unable to retrieve the corresponding spoken form.

*Anomia: word-finding difficulties.
Term
Model of Spoken Word Retrieval & criticisms.
Definition
1. Retrieve modality-independent word-level entry that SPECIFIES THE SYNTACTIC COMPONENTS of the word. -->

Ex. Grammatical class. LEMMA representations.

2. Retrieval of LEXEME. = phonological code that drives articulation.

*Criticism of Levalt’s model:
• Lexeme access without lemma access.
• SJD had difficulty in writing verbs relative to nouns, but had no difficulty with producing spoken nouns and verbs. -->

*suggests that grammatical info is independently represented in speaking and spelling. -->

**opposite of Levalt.

*good evidence for SEP. B/W GRAMMATICAL & PHONOLOGICAL knowledge of single words.
Term
Articulation
Definition
*syllables = basic unit of articulation. As argued.

ARTICULATION DISORDERS = damage to BASAL GANGLIA &/OR INSULA CORTEX, but not nec Broca’s area.

*Apraxia for speech: difficulties in shaping the vocal tract.

*Dysarthria: damage to CEREBELLUM & LEFT BASAL GANGLIA lesions. *impaired muscular contractions of the articulatory apparatus.
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