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CMCN 475 Final
CMCN Research covering surveys, experiments, content analysis, etc.
85
Communication
Undergraduate 3
04/30/2012

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Cards

Term
Scientific Research
Definition
The discovery of answers to questions through application of scientific & systematic procedures
Term
Science is...
Definition
-Public
-Objective
-Empirical
-Systematic & cumulative
-Predictive
-Testable
-Replicable
-Heuristic
Term
Examples of Primary Research
Definition

-Journal articles

-Scholarly texts

-Conference papers

-Research books

Term
Examples of Secondary Research
Definition

-Textbooks

-Books

-Magazines, TV, other media...

Term
Ethical Questions in Reporting Research
Definition

-Accuracy

-Academic Dishonesty

Term
Types of Academic Dishonesty
Definition

-Cheating

-Fabrication

-Facilitating dishonesty

-Plagiarism

-Multiple submission

-Abuse of academic materials

-Deception & misrepresentation

-Electronic dishonesty

-Carelessness

Term
NIH
Definition
National Institutes of Health
Term
OHRP
Definition

-Office for Human Research Protections

-A unit of the U.S Department of Health and Human Services

Term
A researcher's two ethical responsibilities are...
Definition

-Scientific responsibility

-Consideration of ethical issues that may arise from relationship with participants

Term
Scientific Responsibility
Definition

-Researchers are responsible to their profession and discipline. Guidelines must be followed

 

-Responsibility to develop and conduct research projects that will yield knowledge worth knowing

Term
Belmont Report
Definition

-A set of regulations in regards to research participants

 

-Adopted by 17 federal departments and agencies

Term
The 3 Ethical Principles
Definition

-Beneficence

-Respect for persons

-Justice

Term
Beneficence
Definition

-The well-being of participants is protected

 

-Long term benefits must outweigh the minimal risk the participants might encounter

Term
Respect for persons
Definition

(1) Treating individuals as capable of making decisions

 

(2)Protecting those who are not capable of making their own decisions

Term
Justice
Definition
-An issue of fairness
Term
IRBs
Definition

-Institutional Review Boards or human review committees

 

-Primary role is to determine if the rights and welfare of research participants are adequately protected

Term
Informed Consent
Definition
-A potential participant agrees to participate in the research project after he or she has been given some basic information about the basic study
Term
Deception
Definition

-Researchers purposely mislead the participants

 

-Should be used only if no other way exists to collect the data & no harm is done to participants

Term
When deception is used by a researcher, results are expected to...
Definition
have significant scientific, educational, or applied value.
Term
Confederate
Definition
Someone who pretends to also be participating in the research project but is really helping the researcher
Term
Anonymity
Definition
Names and other pieces of information that can identify participants are never attached to the data.
Term
Confidentiality
Definition
Any information or data the participant provides is controlled in such a way that it is not revealed to others nor do others have access to it.
Term
Debriefing
Definition
The opportunity for the researcher to interact with the participants immediately following the research activity
Term
Debriefing can accomplish...(2)
Definition

(1) Good opportunity to obtain participants' observations on taking part in the research project

 

(2) Gives participants an opportunity to ask questions and express their reactions to participating in the research

Term
3 Ways Researchers Protect Intellectual Rights & Avoid Plagiarism
Definition

(1) Indicate with quotation marks when they are using the exact words of someone else

 

(2)Citation and reference information must be given when summarizing or paraphrasing the work of others

 

(3)Complete citation and reference information must be given when mentioning or making reference to the ideas or significant contribution of others

Term
Structure of a Quantitative Research Report
Definition

Title

Abstract

Intro

Literary Review

Methods

Data Analysis

Discussion

References

Appendices

Term
Variables
Definition
Properties or characteristics of people or objects that vary in quality or magnitude from person to person or object to object
Term
Directional Hypothesis
Definition

-Indicates nature & direction of relationship

 

"The more frequent a person's exposure to reality television, the lower their level of self-esteem."

Term
Non-directional Hypothesis
Definition

States that a relationship or difference will occur but does not state the direction.

 

"There is a relationship between exposure to reality television and level of self-esteem."

Term
Types of Internal Validity
Definition

-Face validity

-Content validity

-Criterion validity

Term
Face Validity
Definition
Does the measurement LOOK right?
Term
Content Validity
Definition
Does the measure cover the full range of the variable?
Term
Criterion Validity
Definition

-Measurement is correlated with an external measurement

 

-Concurrent Validity

-Predictive Validity

Term
External Validity
Definition

-Generalizability

 

-Can the results of the test be generalized from the sample to the target population?

Term
Reliability
Definition

-Repeatability

-Consistent each time its performed

-Can be measured

Term
Intercoder Reliability
Definition
-Reflects the level of agreement of two or more independent coders of content
Term
3 Measures of Intercoder Reliability
Definition

-Holsti's formula

 

-Scott's  ∏

 

-Krippendorf's α

Term
Internal Reliability
Definition
Reflects the internal consistency of a scale
Term
Test-Retest Reliability
Definition
Reflects correlations between the scores of the same participants at two different times
Term
Threats to Reliability and Validity
Definition

-Respondents may answer untruthfully

 

-Questions are biased or irrelevant

 

-Researcher influences participants

 

-Ecological Falacy (generalizing to the wrong population)

 

-Drawing conclusions from non-representative data

 

-Oversimplifying inconclusive results

Term
Sampling
Definition
A structured and rigorous process of selecting a representative part of the population for observation or data collection.
Term
Simple Random Sampling
Definition

-Probability Sampling

 

-A sample is drawn so that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Term
Systematic Sampling
Definition

-Probability Sampling

 

-Start with a random point & select every kth case following the point

 

-More efficient than simple random sample

 

-May introduce bias

Term
Stratified Random Sampling
Definition

-Probability Sampling

 

-Divide population into strata (shared characteristics) then draw a simple/systematic sample of each strata

 

-Sample strata should be representative of the population's strata

Term
Cluster Sampling
Definition

-Probability Sampling

 

-Select neutral characteristic (such as cities) and divide the population into groups or clusters based on that characteristic. Draw a random sample of clusters and sample within each cluster.

 

-Used for populations that are geographically dispersed and where a sampling frame is impractical

Term
Snowball Sampling
Definition

-Non-probability sampling

 

-Identify a small number of participants and ask each participant to recruit other participants

Term
Purposive Sampling
Definition

-Non-probability Sampling

 

-Select participants based on a particular characteristic

Term
Survey
Definition
A method for collecting and analyzing social data via highly structured and often very detailed interviews or questionnaires to obtain information from large number of respondents presumed to be representative of the population
Term
Questions a social survey might ask..
Definition

-What do people know/think/do?

 

-What are people's attitudes/beliefs/values?

 

-How are people's actions related to their attitudes?

 

-What are the differences between people in some respect?

Term
Advantages of Surveys
Definition

-Inexpensive

 

-Can obtain a large quantity of current information

 

-Provides quantitative data

Term
Disadvantages of Surveys
Definition

-People lie.

 

-Difficult to obtain representative sample

 

-People often refuse to participate in surveys

 

-Difficult to write good questions

Term
Descriptive Survey
Definition
Used to describe the population
Term
Analytic Survey
Definition

-Seeks to find out relationships between variables

 

-Correlational design

 

-Can prove correlation NOT causation

Term
Cross-Sectional Survey
Definition

-Describes the characteristics of the sample at one point in time

 

-Misleading if done at an unrepresentative time

 

-Only applies to that specific time

Term
Longitudinal Survey
Definition

-Describes the characteristics of the sample across time

 

-Trend Study

-Cohort Study

-Panel Study

Term
Trend Study
Definition

Asks the sames questions used in the previous study for each time interval but does not use the same participants

 

First study: People who graduated college in 2012

 

Five years later...

 

Second study: Same questions. People who graduated college

Term
Cohort Study
Definition

Uses respondents from the same "cohort" or group each time the study is performed but not the same EXACT respondents

 

First study: Students A, B, & C from the class of 2012

 

Five years later...

 

Second study: Students D, E, & F from the class of 2012

Term
Panel Study
Definition

Uses the same exact participants at each time interval the study is done

 

First Study: Students A, B, & C from class of 2012

 

Five years later...

 

Second study: Students A, B, & C from class of 2012

Term
Parts of a Questionnaire
Definition

-Intro

-Instructions

-Questions

-Closing

Term
Content Analysis
Definition

-Systematic

-Quantitative

-Objective

-Analysis of communication content

Term
Uses of Content Analysis
Definition

-Describe CMCN content

 

-Test hypothesis of message characteristics

 

-Compare media content to real world

 

-Assess the image of particular groups in society

 

-Establish a starting point for media effect studies

Term
Steps of Content Analysis
Definition

-Formulate hypothesis

 

-Define population

 

-Select sample

 

-Define unit of analysis (what is actually counted? Articles, frames, etc.)

 

-Construct equal, mutually exclusive, exhaustive coding categories. (MTV VJ race: black, asian, white)

 

-Establish quantification system (how will you measure your variables?)

 

-Train coders and conduct pilot (Prepare codebook)

 

-Code content

-Analyze data

-Write report

Term
Advantages of Content Analysis
Definition

-Some data are easy to collect (computerized)

 

-Only method to research CONTENT

 

-Unobtrusive

Term
Disadvantages of Content Analysis
Definition

-Some data are difficult to collect

 

-No cause-effect relationship

 

-Categories may be hard to operationalize

 

-Hard to obtain a random sample

Term
Experimental Research
Definition
A study of the effects of variables manipulated (or introduced) by the researcher in situations where all other influences are held constant, with the purposes of establishing a causal relationship
Term
Advantages of Lab Experiments
Definition

-Evidence of causality (not PROOF)

 

-Control of environment, variable, subjects

 

-Cost (vs some other methods)

 

-Replication (often with minor variations)

 

-Cumulative knowledge (theory building)

Term
Disadvantages of Lab Experiments
Definition

-Artificiality (alerts participants and provides potential for bias)

 

-Researcher bias

 

-Limited scope (size of sample too restrictive for some topics)

Term
Advantages of Field Experiments
Definition

-External validity (generalizability)

 

-Realistic setting

 

-Nonreactivity

 

-Can be inexpensive

Term
Disadvantage of Field Experiments
Definition

-Lack of control of participants

 

-Lack of control of circumstances

Term
Characteristics of Experiments
Definition

-Manipulation of an independent variable

 

-Keeping other influences constant

 

-Randomization: Random assignment of participants to groups

Term
Quasi-experiments
Definition

-a "natural" experiment

 

-Independent variable varies & cannot be manipulated by the researcher (gender)

Term
Procedures in Experimental Research
Definition

-Select the setting

 

-Select a design

 

-Operationalize the variables

 

-Select and assign (randomize) participants to groups: treatment group & control group

 

-Conduct a pilot study

 

-Administer the experiment

 

-Analyze and interpret the results

Term

Campbell & Stanley Notation:

 

R = _________

X = _________

O = _________

 

Temporal precedence or order assumed: e.g = ______________

Definition

R = randomization

X = treatment or manipulation of IV

O = observation of DV

 

Temporal precedence = t1 t2 t3 t4

Term
Pretest - Posttest Control Group
Definition

-Randomization

 

-2 groups: treatment group/control group

 

-DV is measured in both groups before stimuli is applied to the treatment group after which DV is measured again in the exact same manner with same participants as before. 

 

R       O1        X        O2

 

R       O1                 O2

Term
Posttest Only Control Group
Definition

-Randomization

 

-2 groups: treatment group/control group

 

-DV is measured only AFTER stimuli is applied to the treatment group

 

-Allows researcher to assume any changes in treatment group are due to stimuli

 

R         X        O2

 

R                  O2

Term
Factorial Design (2x2)
Definition

-Randomization

-Treatment groups are based on two or more independent variables

-Allows researcher to test for complex cause-effect relationships that can't be tested with only one IV

-Allows researcher to test for the effects of each IV or how IVs combine to influence the DV

 

[image]

Term
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Definition

Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent Control Group

 

O1        X        O2

 

O1                 O2

 


Interrupted Time Series Design

 

O1   O2   O3   O4   X   O5   O6   O7   O8

Term
3 Requirements for Causal Relationships
Definition

Covariation 

 

Temporal Precedence

 

All other causes ruled out

Term
Descriptive Statistics
Definition

-Number of cases

 

-Frequency

 

-Percentages

 

-Measures of Dispersion

        -Range

        -Standard Deviation

        -Variance

 

-Measures of Central Tendency

        -Mean

        -Mode

        -Median

Term
Correlations Test
Definition

-Tests for correlation or relationship

 

-CANNOT prove causal relationship

 

-Pearson's R or Spearman

Term
Pearson's R
Definition
Correlations test used if both variables are interval level variables
Term
Spearman
Definition
Correlations test used if one or more variables are ordinal level variables
Term
T-test
Definition

-Test of differences

 

-Is there a difference between TWO groups?

Term
ANOVA
Definition

ANalysis Of VAriance

 

-Test of differences

 

-Is there a difference between THREE or more groups?

Term
Levine's Level of Significance
Definition
The only test in which a significance level GREATER than 0.05 is a good thing.
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