Term
| Cortical, volitional system |
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Definition
| intentional, planned movement: basal ganglia and cerebellum (posture, walking, moving, coordination) |
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Term
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Definition
| in the motor cortex, areas of the body are mapped out; each area of the body is controlled by a specific area of neurons in this area of the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| proximal innervation, uses sensory information |
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Term
| Supplementary Motor Area (SMA) |
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Definition
| distal innervation, for higher order movement and planning/imagining movements (PET study showed that thinking about making certain movements activates SMA) |
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Term
| Direct Pathway of basal ganglia |
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Definition
| release/facilitates movement |
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Term
| Indirect pathway of basal ganglia |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
1. Clinical features – small, uncontrollable movements; mood problems; depression
2. Epidemiology (prevalence) – 7 in 100,000 worldwide (according to Wikipedia)
3. Course & outcomes – more CAG repetitions earlier age of onset; first small and short-term symptoms; progress with disease
4. Biological mechanisms – more than 35 CAG repetitions on a section of chromosome 4
5. Brain structure, function & Cognition – basal ganglia and caudate/putamen heavily involved; however, all of the cortex is generally affected
6. Etiologic factors (genetics, environment) – dominant genetic trait
7. Treatment (biological & behavioral) – several medications control symptoms; there is no treatment |
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Term
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Definition
| – 24 hour biological cycles; melatonin facilitates by being produced more during the night when it is dark; without any environmental light-dark variation, the body shifts to a 25 hour cycle |
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Term
| Biological correlates of sleep |
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Definition
| brain waves have different patterns and are less frequent (lower Hz) when asleep; the reticular formation helps you stay awake by spreading neurotransmitter through the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| – stage 1: theta waves, HR and breathing slow, respiration slows, body temp decreases; stage 2: theta waves and sleep spindles; stage 3: delta waves; stage 4: delta waves, deep sleep (slow wave sleep) |
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Term
| Non-Rem sleep vs. REM sleep |
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Definition
| REM sleep associated with dreaming, increased HR and respiration, erection, waking EEG patterns; cannot occur unless specific norepinephrine neurons are shut down in the brain and cholinergic neurons in the pons are on; non-REM sleep is a basic deep sleep during which the body demonstrates lowered cerebral blood flow and lower blood pressure in general compared to wakefulness or REM sleep |
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Term
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Definition
| awareness of existence, ability to perceive; no set definition |
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Term
| Properties of consciousness |
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Definition
| personal (can’t share with others, introspective); selective (only attend to specific things/one thing at a time); continuous (stream of consciousness); changing |
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Term
| Functional theories of consciousness |
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Definition
| integration of signals; planning/problem solving; coherent behavior to complex events; theory of mind |
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Term
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Definition
| thinking to yourself instead of audible conversation |
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Term
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Definition
| specific internal systems such as visual input, organ function, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
| ego: mediates between id and superego; id: instincts/drives; superego: what you “should” do |
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Term
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Definition
| defense mechanism? Bad memories are less likely to be remembered than plesent ones |
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Term
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Definition
| allow experiencing something mentally without it actually happening; positive expectations lead to higher success and motivation; positive fantasies associated with lower motivation/success |
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Term
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Definition
| likelihood to believe or do something somebody tells you, likelihood of falsely remembering a story or a dream |
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Term
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Definition
| coma and cause for coma, lack of reflexes, no motor responses, no breathing, persistent, confounding factors ruled out |
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Term
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Definition
| absence of arousal, unresponsive, no wakefulness, most don’t recover |
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Term
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Definition
| unawareness of self, no evidence of language comprehension; breathing present, eye closure and opening, possible sleep/wake cycles |
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Term
| minimally conscious state |
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Definition
| limited evidence of awareness, eye closure/opening cycles, can follow simple commands |
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Term
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Definition
| descending motor tracts lesioned; no speech or movements; sensation and consciousness in tact |
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Term
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Definition
| injury to visual cortex; person is blind but can localize and discriminate between stimuli at a rate above chance |
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Term
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Definition
| body can’t sense one side of the body (contralateral to lesion) |
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Term
| Cultural, Scientific, political history |
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Definition
1900’s: legalization o birth control; Freud’s sexuality ideas
1940’s: first antibiotics treated syphilis and gonorrhea
1960’s: oral contraceptives
1970’s: Rowe vs. Wade: abortion legalized in US; gay rights, feminism
1980’s: AIDS, safe sex
1990’s on: celibacy vs. practice based sex ed.; HIV and treatments; pro-life vs. pro choice; internet |
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Term
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Definition
Female: lubrication, vasocongestion, sex flush in clitoris and labia
Male: erection, elevation/expansion of testes;
Both: Nipple erection, muscle tension |
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Term
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Definition
| Both: Sex Flush, increased muscle tension, hyperventilation; increased heart rate and blood pressure |
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Term
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Definition
| Female: pelvic, uterine, rectal contractions; Male: Ejaculation, contractions of urethra and anal sphincter; Both: increased heart rate, blood pressure, hyperventilation, pleasure sensation |
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Term
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Definition
| slow loss of vasocongestion, erection, men have refractory period |
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Term
| Male Sexual Response circuits; paragigantocellular nucleus, serotonin |
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Definition
| inhibits erection using sympathetic activation |
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Term
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Definition
| Medial preoptic area (MPOA) and hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus – proerectile |
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Term
| nitrous oxide & acetylcholine & erectile response |
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Definition
| relax smooth muscles around blood vessels; constrict draining veins |
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Term
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Definition
| prolactin level is increased 400% after intercourse than after masturbation -> greater satisfaction? |
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Term
| genetics of sexual response |
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Definition
| genes influence 34% of orgasmic response w/partner; 45% during masturbation |
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Term
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Definition
| female gonadotrophine hormone; neuroprotective; reduces effects of free radicals |
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Term
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Definition
| female gonadotrophine hormone |
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Term
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Definition
| male gonadotrophine hormone, produce male sexual characteristics, decreases with age, correlated positively with aggression in boys, neuroprotective |
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Term
| hormones & sexual behavior |
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Definition
| more hormone = higher sex drive; more hormone = more attractive; 24% more likely to have sex in 6 days prior to ovulation; women dress more attractively around ovulation |
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Term
| determinants of attractiveness in men & women |
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Definition
| symmetry is always attractive; some say blue eyes are more attractive because that is a pure recessive gene; waist to hip ratio is important in attractiveness of women; men are more attractive if they are tall with wide shoulders, narrow hips |
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Term
| gender differences in sexual behavior, mate selection |
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Definition
| men look for women who are fertile, young, healthy; women prefer men who are committed, fertile, have status and resources |
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Term
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Definition
| chronic inability to respond sexually in a way that is pleasing to one or both partners |
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Term
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Definition
| general health, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, genitourinary disease, psychiatric/neurologic disorders |
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Term
| Hypoactive sexual desire disorder |
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Definition
| lack of sexual fantasies/activity; prevalence: 22% of women, 5% of men; many times comorbid with mood or anxiety disorders |
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Term
| Female sexual arousal disorder |
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Definition
| lack of pleasure from stimulation; no vasocongestion or lubrication with stimulation, may be result of physiological factors; prevalence: 21% of Females |
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Term
| Male erectile dysfunction |
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Definition
| difficulty achieving/maintaining erection; Prevalence: 10-20%; 4-9% receive treatment; increases with age; related to other medical disorders including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, lack of exercise, hormonal factors |
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Term
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Definition
| inability to experience orgasm after excitement despite receiving adequate stimulation; Prevalence: 10%; 40% only with clitoral stimulation |
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Term
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Definition
| lack of physiological changes that comprise the excitement phase of the sexual response cycle |
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Term
| Male premature ejaculation |
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Definition
| ejaculation too early for male and partner; 15-30% |
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Term
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Definition
| inability to ejaculate; 8% |
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Term
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Definition
| Pain during intercourse; poor lubrication; poorly healed vaginal lacerations; endometriosis (uterine cell growth outside the uterus); 10-15% of females, rare in males |
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Term
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Definition
| inability to relax cervical muscles to allow penetration despite sexual arousal; 2 to 17%; sexual abuse, aversion to sexuality, rape, after an incident that led to pain during intercourse |
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Term
| medication effects on sexual dysfunction |
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Definition
| certain medications can heighten the risk for sexual dysfunction, including psychoactive medications, cardiovascular medications, hormonal preparations; many times this is related to serotonin reuptake being inhibited because serotonin is needed in normal sexual response |
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Term
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Definition
| medication can help some types of dysfunctions; Viagra helps by inhibiting blood from flowing out of the penis; sex therapy can also work; couples can use techniques like “stop-start,” couple’s therapy, cognitive therapy and relaxation |
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Term
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Definition
| caused by bacteria; infects spinal cord and sensory tracts; destructs brain cells causing paralysis, tremors, dementia; symptoms also include irritability, poor concentration, confusion; 15% prevalence in 1900; now antibiotics can treat it |
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Term
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Definition
| human immunodeficiency virus; transmitted through bodily fluid contact; attacks immune system; four stages include: 1) initial infection; 2) clinically asymptomatic stage; 3) symptomatic HIV; 4) AIDS; prevalence in DC 3% |
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Term
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Definition
| taste system; microvilli send information to hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, gustatory and somatosensory cortices |
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Term
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Definition
| smell system; olfactory bulb projects to amygdala and hippocampus which easily relates smell to learning/memory |
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Term
| Lesion effects on ventroedial hypothalamus |
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Definition
| ventromedial hypothalamus is the satiety area which tells the animal to stop eating; a lesion would make the animal very overweight |
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Term
| Lesion effects on lateral hypothalamus |
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Definition
| hypothalamus tells animal to start eating; lesion would make the animal lose weight because it would not be driven to eat |
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Term
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Definition
| hormone produced by fat cells which signals the ventromedial hypothalamus to stop eating; reverses eating disorder in rats |
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Term
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Definition
| when rats have mutation in OB gene, they cannot produce leptin efficiently so the hypothalamus ventral medial hypothalamus is not signaled to stop eating; when rats have mutation in OB gene, they cannot produce leptin efficiently so the hypothalamus ventral medial hypothalamus is not signaled to stop eating; too little leptin stimulates eating |
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Term
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Definition
| glucose levels drop prior to eating making hunger feeling |
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Term
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Definition
| suppresses eating, produced by intestine |
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Term
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Definition
| secreted by stomach before eating |
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Term
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Definition
| levels in hypothalamus rise in anticipation of eating, spike during eating, decrease after eating |
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Term
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Definition
| activation of this system increases hunger |
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Term
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Definition
| cannabinoid antagonist decreases hunger and, therefore, results in weightloss |
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Term
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Definition
| conditioned times to eat (5:00 dinner); need to eat before I get dessert |
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Term
| social context & relationships and eating |
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Definition
| eat more in the company of others; friends of obese people tend to gain weight; effects greater for same sex rather than opposite sex relationships |
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Term
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Definition
| area in the ventromedial hypothalamus that regulates hunger/satiety signals and releases corresponding neurotransmitter |
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Term
| environmental cues for eating |
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Definition
| external cues like signs, pictures or smells can correspond with food; Schachter said that hunger is influenced by both internal and external cues |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| high amount of body fat in relation to lean body mass |
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Term
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Definition
| high amount of body fat in relation to lean body mass |
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Term
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Definition
| 25% of US citizens classified as obese; obesity has grown greatly since 1990 (about 10 to 15% obese) |
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Term
| genetic factors and obesity |
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Definition
| about 50 to 70% genetic factors in BMI |
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Term
| nucleus accumbens & dopaminergic pathways |
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Definition
| amount of dopamine released in nucleus accumbens influences the food’s reinforcing qualities because dopamine causes a good feeling |
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Term
| brain activation, hunger & obesity |
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Definition
| obese peoples’ brains respond more to food and have a down-regulation of dopamine reward circuit so they anticipate food but get less pleasure from eating it so feel the need to eat more |
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Term
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Definition
| make stomach smaller and bypass some of the small intestine |
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Term
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Definition
| surgical weight loss intervention where band is tightened around stomach but can be adjusted by the addition or by taking away of saline from the band |
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Term
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Definition
| receives input from retina about the time in the biological clock and regulates melatonin secretion; melatonin decreases during daylight |
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Term
| Brain activation during dreaming |
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Definition
| forebrain very active (PFC and other areas) due to imagination, stories, etc.; occipital lobe also active |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| stop breathing briefly during the night; 5% of men over age 40; obesity is a risk factor |
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Term
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Definition
| sudden sleepiness; more periods of REM and less deep sleep than normal; 90% of cases also associated with a gene on chromosome 6 |
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Term
| hypnagogic hallucinations |
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Definition
| hallucinations when falling asleep |
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Term
| hypnopompic hallucinations |
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Definition
| hallucination when waking up |
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Term
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Definition
| awakening during REM but paralysis persists, often with hallucinations |
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Term
| narcolepsy and hypocretin (orexin) |
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Definition
| lower levels of hypocretin in hypothalamus and CSF of narcoleptics |
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Term
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Definition
| inability to fall asleep; 15 to 20% of adults, more common with increased age; related to depression and anxiety |
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Term
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Definition
| insomnia also associated with increased metabolic rate, cortisol production and lack of daytime sleepiness |
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Term
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Definition
| breathing/relaxation before bed; more activity and less naps during the day; regular bedtime and wake time |
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Term
| circadian rhythm disorders |
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Definition
| people cannot sleep and wake up at the time required in society; normal quality of sleep |
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Term
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Definition
| shine bright lights to alter circadian rhythms |
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Term
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Definition
| sleep disorders involving abnormal behaviors, perceptions, movements, dreams during any stage of sleep |
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Term
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Definition
| unusual movements or crying in bed |
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Term
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Definition
| somnambulism; occurs within first two hours of sleeping; 1 to 17% of children but only 4% of adults affected |
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Term
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Definition
| arousal from non-REM sleep accompanied by panic, motor behavior; more common in children than adults |
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Term
| REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) |
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Definition
| individuals act out their dreams because muscle atonia is absent; most patients are males older than 50 |
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Term
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Definition
| consciousness is limited so there is no way to pay attention to many things at once; we have natural attention deficits |
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Term
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Definition
| perceptions can be misleading; our consciousness can alter our perceptual experience |
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Term
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Definition
| degeneration of subthalamic nucleus; ballistic, violent movements; malnutrition and emaciation; continuous during waking hours, absent during sleep; basal ganglia affected |
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Term
| Deep brain stimulation therapy for movement disorder |
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Definition
| found to help relieve symptoms of movement disorders |
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Term
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Definition
| self-injurious behavior; delayed growth; HPRT1 mutation that makes body unable to remove uric acid; only males; reduction in caudate nucleus size |
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Term
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Definition
| muscle contractions cause abnormal postures and twisting movement; due to basal ganglia abnormalities; first symptoms occur in childhood or adolescence and progress; can be treated with sedatives, dopamine agonists/antagonists, anticholinergics; physical therapy; surgical abalation |
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Term
| Basal Ganglia and movement |
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Definition
basal ganglia control involuntary movements; volitional system
caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, substantia nigra |
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Term
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Definition
1. Clinical features – tics: repetitive involuntary movements or vocalizations
2. Epidemiology (prevalence) – 200,000 in the US
3. Course & outcomes – age of onset between 7 and 10 years old; progresses during adolescence, improves during young adulthood; 10% have severe/disabling course
5. Biological mechanisms – genes may be a factor
6. Brain structure, function & Cognition – basal ganglia probably involved because of dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine downregulation
7. Etiologic factors (genetics, environment) – a genetic factor may be shared with ADHD and OCD
8. Treatment (biological & behavioral) – dopamine antagonists; behavioral interventions |
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Term
| Neural systems affected by Parkinson’s disease |
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Definition
| ACh system overstimulates targets and dopamine-producing neurons die |
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Term
| Pharmacological Treatment |
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Definition
| cholinergic antagonists were first used but were not found to be very effective; dopamine agonists (L-dopa) were found to work well for a time |
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Term
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Definition
| drug stops working for as long of at time after about 4 years |
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Term
| on-off phenomena of L-dopa |
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Definition
| patients began to freeze and be immobile for a time |
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Term
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Definition
1. Clinical features – self mutilation, uric acid crystals in urine
2. Epidemiology (prevalence) – 1/380,000 births
3. Course – low muscle density at birth; strange behavior around 6 months, progresses after that
4. Biological mechanisms – mutation in gene that reduces uric acid production
5. Brain structure, function & Cognition – putamen, globus palladus affected; uncontrolled movements
6. Etiologic factors (genetics, environment) – all boys; girls not affected
7. Treatment (biological & behavioral) – deep brain stimulation may help, other treatments have not been proven effective, muscle relaxants, sedatives, removal of teeth |
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