friction from the wind. Differences in temperature and density.

Difference between Surface currents and deep water currents

Upwelling

upwelling is when water from deep down and causes. El Nino limits upwelling of cold nutrient rich water. Therefore, animals die.

El nino causes – wind usually travels strongly from east to west.  But El nino causes it to slow down and warming along the west coast of South America occurs. Temperatures warmer than normal in the central north US.  Cooler in Southeast and southwest. More rain in south of US and Peru leading to damage and flooding.  Wet winters in southeastern US, can last a year or more.  Usually occur every three to seven years. Drought in west pacific.    

La nina

unusual cold in Pacific.  It means warmer than normal in the southeast and cooler than normal in the north west.  Impacts seen mainly at winter time.

Southern Oscillation

Reversal of atmospheric circulation in tropical Pacific Ocean that triggers the development of an El Nino.

East west circulation. [image]

Volcanoes and their effect on climate

Increase albedo therefore decrease temperature.

Changes in solar radiation

sun spot cycle

cold spots on the sun.  Approximate 11 year cycle.  Solar sunspot inactivity is linked to “Little Ice Age”

using C14 to determine past solar activity

higher solar activity means lower C14 production

Climate Classification

A         Tropical rainy              coldest month>18C

            B          Tropical Dry                Evaporation >Precipitation No permanent streams orginate

            C          Mild temperate             coldest month 0C-18C

            D         cold snowforest           coldest month <0C, warmest > 10C

            E          Polar                            warmest month <10C

            M         Mountain

Subgroups of A, C, D

            f no dry season

            Af driest mo >6in (2.4cm)

            Cf driest >3in

Dry Winter       w

Aw       driest month <10 – r/25           r=annual precip in Cw

Dw and Cw > 70% of rain in summer climo or driest month is <.1 the wettest month.

Dry summer cs> 70% of rain in winter 6 months

                        Am – monsoon driest month between 6 cm and 10-r/25

Degree of dryness (B)

W arid or desert

Rr<((.44t – 8.5)/2)

t is average annual temperature

t = average annual temperature in F

s – semi arid or steppe

(.44t-8.5)/2 < r < (.44t -8.5)

If 70% of precip in warmer 6 months use 3 rather than 8.5

If 70% of precip in the colder 6 months use 14 rather than 8.5

Degree of Coldness (B)

h – hot average annual annual temperature >18 C (64.4)

k – cold aveage annual temp is <18C

Bsh

Bwh

Bsk

Bwk

Degrees of Coldness (E)

T tundra                       >0C

F perpetual frost          <0C

Degrees Coldness (C+D)

a – hot summer warmest month >22C

b – cool summer – warm month <22C

c – cool short summer <4 mo, >10C

d – cold winter, coldest mo <-38

d overrides a, b, c

w’ rain max in fall

w’’ 2 rain max with too dry between

i hat     annual temperature range <5C warmest mo to coldest

g          hottest month before summer solstice

n          frequent           Bwn, Bsn, CSn

A-    19.9%

B-     26.3

C-     15.5

D-    21.3

E-     17

Tropical rainforest climate (Af)

Tropical monsoon climate (Am

Tropical wet and dry or savanna climate (Aw)

BW (desert climate)

BS (steppe climate)

h to mean that the coldest month has an average temperature that is above 0 °C (32 °F), with k denoting that at least one month averages below 0 °C

Dry-summer subtropical or Mediterranean climates (Csa, Csb)

dry-summer subtropical (Csb)

Humid subtropical climates (Cfa, Cwa)

Maritime Temperate climates or Oceanic climates (Cfb, Cwb, Cfc)

temperate climate with dry winters (Cwb)
Maritime Subarctic climates or Subpolar Oceanic climates (Cfc)

Hot Summer Continental climates (Dfa, Dwa, Dsa)

Warm Summer Continental or Hemiboreal climates (Dfb, Dwb, Dsb)

Continental Subarctic or Boreal (taiga) climates (Dfc, Dwc, Dsc)

Continental Subarctic climates with extremely severe winters (Dfd, Dwd)

Tundra climate (ET)

Ice Cap climate (EF)

• Group A

This the tropical climate realm

• Group B

BW and BS mean the same as in the Köppen scheme

• Group C

In the Trewartha scheme this category encompasses subtropical realm climates only (8 or more months above 10 °C).

• Group D

This group represents cold continental realms (4 to 7 months above 10 °C). Maritime temperate climates

• Group E

This represents Ice realms, defined the same as in Köppen's scheme (1 to 3 months with average temperatures of 10 °C or above; Köppen Cfc, Dfc, Dwc, Dsc, Dfd, Dwd

• Group F

This is the polar climate group, split into FT (Köppen ET) and FI (Köppen EF).

• Group H

Highland climates, in which altitude plays a role in determining climate classification.[

i— severely hot: Mean monthly temperature 35 °C (95 °F) or higher
h — very hot: 28 to 34.9 °C (82 to 95 °F)
a — hot: 23 to 27.9 °C (73 to 82 °F)
b — warm: 18 to 22.9 °C (64 to 73 °F)
l — mild: 10 to 17.9 °C (50 to 64 °F)
k — cool: 0.1 to 9.9 °C (32 to 50 °F)
o — cold: -9.9 to 0 °C (14 to 32 °F)
c — very cold: -24.9 to -10 °C (-13 to 14 °F)
d — severely cold: -39.9 to -25 °C (-40 to -13 °F)
e — excessively cold: −40 °C (−40 °F) or below.

• mT maritime tropical
• mE maritime equatorial
• cT continental tropical
• mP maritime polar
• cP continental polar
• cA continental arctic
• cAA continental antarctic

low latitudes dominated by equatorial and tropical. ITCZ converging MT+E. Desrt CT. Wet -Dry combingation of 1 and 2.  Wet tropical aka east coast MT. Dry tropical west caost MTs (stable)

Determining Past Climate and What it was like

Palynology

study of climatole using polen found in sedimients and peat bogs.

it shows a younger dryas period of a cool down

examination of bottom deposits fo lakes which freeze in winter

in summer only large particles can deposite on lake bottom due to wind moving water around therefore sediments have light color

winter lake freezes so small particles and organic matter can deposit and it gives it a dark layer

oxygen ratio

glaciers

drift ice

Continental drift

Earth’s magnetic field

T test

t-test =  (X-M)/S/sqrt(n-1) = (X-M) *sqrt(n-1)/S

degrees of freedom = n-1

t = (X1-X2)/sqrt(S1^2 + S2^2)/sqrt(n-1)

uplift weathering

polar positioning hypothesis

ice sheets should appear on continents when they are located at polar near polar latitudes

no ice sould appear anywhere on earth if no continents exist anywehere near the poles

Potential evapotranspiration –The amount of evapotranspiration when soil is at field capacity.

Field Capacity-Amount of water a field can hold against gravity.

Actual evapotranspiration-The measured value.

Evaporation can be caused by sunlight, humidity, wind, and temperature.

Evapotranspiration is the sum of evaporation and transpiration.

Transpiration-Water vapor given off by plants.

Palmer Index

if it’s not enough to grow what you’re used to growing, it’s a drought.

PE peaks in July, PE starts exceeding the AE in May and does through early October.

Desertification-Can be caused by deforestation, overgrazing, improper use of the land, crop growing, irrigation, and salization-salting the earth. Dust in the air can create a permanent inversion preventing rainfall-as the wind blows across the desert, dust is picked up.

General Circulation of the Atmosphere

Low Pressure around 60 degrees N in the winter

Subtropical highs at 30 degrees in the winter

Farrel’s model didn’t work because it would give a westerly wind at the surface and an easterly wind aloft.

Rossby waves-Rossby came up with waves that oscillate north and south to describe the polar jet stream.

Meridional flow-has big dips north and south-big temperature gradients

Zonal flow-more circular-better mixing of air reducing gradients

Subtropical highs and the ITCZ shift north in the summer and south in the winter.

Mediterranean climate-wet winter, dry summer

Climate where the wind shifts on an annual basis at least 120 degrees.

Africa gets southern monsoons in the summer.

Indonesia is always wet.

Drought in Sahel-Middle nation in Africa that sometimes gets rain and sometimes doesn’t because the northward shift of the ITCZ varies from year to year.

Subtropical high in the eastern Pacific is offshore of northern California in the summer bringing cooler, drier, northerly winds.

Subtropical high in the eastern Pacific is offshore of southern California in the winter bringing a west southwest wind and abundant moisture to the state.

East side of subtropical highs have divergence, northerly winds, and dry air.

West side of subtropical highs have convergence, southerly winds, and rain.

More coriolis force on the north side of subtropical highs and weaker velocities.

Less coriolis force on the south side of subtropical highs and stronger velocities.

Africa gets monsoons from the southwest , African monsoon varies from year to year. India gets a lot of rain because the monsoon moisture goes well into the Himalayan mountains .

Malaya is always wet

Arabia is always dry

Empirical vs. Genetic-Empirical is the effect on climate –temp  and rainfall.

Genetic is the cause for a type of climate.

Thornthwaite-Rather than looking at temp, you’re looking at evapotranspiration. Look at both Actual Evapotranspiration and Potential Evapotranspiration

Landsberg-winds-He divided wind patterns into anti cyclones and trade winds, then looked at areas that may alternate between those 2. The causative factor for climate is winds.

Mountain Building Hypothesis –If you increase Mountains, you get an increase in weathering which removes carbon from the atmosphere and causes cooling-very slow process.

Changes in solar radiation-Solar radiation varies which likely caused the little ice age. Main factor that looks at these changes is carbon 14 in trees, how old the carbon is tells how much should have decayed-low carbon 14 amounts lead to high solar activity, high carbon 14 amounts lead to low solar activity.

Causes of drought- Persistent high pressure, cold or warm water currents can stall a high pressure system, sometimes gulf winds are not carried far enough north which causes Midwest drought, monsoon winds sometimes go north-south instead of east-west which leads to drought in India, leeward side of mountains gives a rain shadow effect.

Subtropical Jet- Caused by winds accelerating from the equator to 30 degrees due to concentration of angular momentum.

Influence of oceans on east and west coast at high and low latitudes-Stamm says he wants this answered in terms of latitudes such as north and south latitudes, NOT elevation. He said an example is Northern British Columbia into Alaska.

Drought in Rajasthan Desert-Overgrazing causing a constant elevated dust level which makes the air stable by reflecting and absorbing sunlight.

Subtropical and Temperate deserts- subtropical is caused by subtropical highs, temperate are caused by rain shadows.

Terjung’s Comfort Index-Looked at temps and what is the typical temp in the summer and the typical temp in the winter; he also looked at moisture and determined that hot and dry was more comfortable than hot and moist.

Polar Easterlies-Just like there are easterlies in the tropics, there are easterlies in the polar regions as well due to the polar cell, but they are weaker. Polar is a more vertical circulation.