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Child Psychology
Chapter 1 and 2
129
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
09/13/2015

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Term
Chromosomes
Definition
made up of DNA
Term
Genes
Definition
segments of chromosomes
Term
DNA
Definition

comprised of base pairs: 

-adenine, thymine

-guanine, cytosine 

 

sugar and phosphates 

Term
zygote
Definition

combination of egg and sperm to form 23 pairs of chormosomes 

-22 autosomes

-1 sex chormosome 

Term
cell division
Definition

mitosis- standard process; 46 chromosomes/cell 

meiosis- reduction division; unique to sperm and ova; 23 chromosomes/cell 

Term
mitosis
Definition

-divided from a somatic cell

-2 daughter cells 

-all daughter cells have 46 chromsomes 

5 phases 

Term

meiosis 

 

Definition

-divided from a reproductive cell 

-4 daughter cells 

-all daughter cells ahve 23 chromosomes 

-9 phases 

Term
similarities for mitosis and meosis
Definition

-ways for cell to divide

-same number of chromosome as the original cell 

-both have the basic 5 phases 

Term
X chromosome
Definition
large and carries lots of genetic information
Term
Y chromosome
Definition

small and carries only a few genes 

 

Term
XX
Definition
female
Term
XY
Definition
male
Term
Female
Definition
23rd pair of chromosomes of the ovum consists of chromosomes X & X
Term
Male
Definition
23rd pair of chromosomes of the sperm consists of chromosomes X & Y
Term
genotype
Definition
unique genetic blueprint
Term
phenotype
Definition
actual characteristics expressed
Term
homozygous
Definition
2 dominant or 2 recessive
Term
heterozygous
Definition
1 dominant & 1 recessive
Term
dominant
Definition
one trait expressed when 2 competing traits are present
Term
recessive
Definition
trait present but not expressed
Term
chromosomal abnormalities
Definition

trisomies= 3 copies of a specific autosome

-trisomy 21=down's syndrome, smaller brains, mental retardation 

Term
sex-chromosome abnormalities
Definition

-klinefelter's syndrome (XXY) 

 -XYY

-turner's syndrome 

-XXX

Term
genetic disorders
Definition

autosomal disorders- caused by genes located on chromosomes other than sex chromosomes

~phenylketonuria (PKU) 

~sickle-cell disease 

~tay-sachs disease 

~cystic fibrosis 

Term
PKU
Definition
inherited disorder where the child is unable to use phenylalanine (an amino acid). If untreated, leads to brain damage and mental retardation
Term
X-linked genetic disorders
Definition

recessive and located only on the X chromosome 

-red-green colorblindess

-hemophilia

-duchenne's muscular dystrophy 

Term
polygenic
Definition

many genes influence phenotype (ex. 3 genes) 

e.g., skin color 

Term
multi-factorial
Definition

affected by genes and environment 

example: height (environment+genes), cancer, diabetes 

Term
prenatal assessment
Definition
genetic counseling before pregnancy
Term
prenatal tests
Definition

serum screening- AFP 

ultrasound sonography 

chorionic villus sampling- week 9 to 12 

amnicentesis-usually after week 15 

Term
adoption studies
Definition

more like adoptive parents= environment (nurture) 

more like biological parents= genetics (nature)

Term
twin studies
Definition

monozygotic (identical) vs. dyzygotic (fraternal) twins 

MZ very much like DZ- environment (nuture) 

MZ very different from DZ- genetics (nature) 

Term
menstrual cycle
Definition

1. menstruation (day 1-5)

2. Follicular phase (days 5-14)

3. Luteal phase (days 14-28) 

Term
conception
Definition
ovum (egg) and sperm join to form zygote
Term
alternative conception methods
Definition

-artifical insemination- sperm placed directly in vagina 

-in vitro fertilization (IVF)- egg fertilized in lab and implanted into fallopian tubes 

-donor IVF- use donor egg

-surrogate mother 

 

Term
stages of prenatal development
Definition

-germinal 

-embryonic 

-fetal stage 

Term

germinal stage 

(conception to 2 weeks) 

Definition

-cells division, implantation of blastocyst 

-cells inside will become the embryo's body 

Term

embroyonic stage 

(2 weeks to 8 weeks)

Definition

-foundations of body's major organs and neural tube form 

 

-3 layers of cells: 

ectoderm 

endoderm-inner layer

mesoderm-middle layer

Term
embryonic stage
Definition

sex differentiation:

-weeks 5-6 genital organs develop 

-week 7 differentiation begins; y chrom. causes testes to defferentiate & secrete androgens; absence casues ovary dev. 

 

testosterone-> wolffian duct development

mullerian inhibiting substance-> prevents female duct

Term

fetal stage

(8 weeks to birth)

Definition

-refines brains and other organs, neurons multiply 

-end of 3rd month, fetus can move 

-marked growth 

Term
pregnancy
Definition

3 trimesters: 

first trimester 

second trimester

third trimester 

Term

first trimester 

(1-13 weeks)

Definition

-zygote implants 

-cycle stops

-cervix thickens & secretes mucus to protect embryo 

-symptoms= breast tenderness, nausea, fatigue 

-miscarriage= 15% to 1/3 of pregnancies 

Term

second trimester

(14-27 weeks)

Definition

-risk of miscarriage decreases 

-uterus expands, appetite increases, energy returns 

-begin to "show" 

-quickening=fetal movement (week 16-18)

-week 16-20 sex can easily be determined on ultrasound (book says 9-12 wk)

-hair develops; can suck thumb, hiccup

-eyes open/shut, can perceive light, sound

-age of viability 22-25 wks 

Term

third trimester 

(28 weeks to birth) 

Definition

-fetus has regular rest and active periods

-fetal organs continue to mature 

-weight gain and abdominal enlargement 

-colostrum release from breasts 

-braxton-hicks contractions 

-wk 36 fetus engages (head down position) 

Term
teratogens
Definition

-environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that can produce a birth defect 

-critical period- specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequence/impact 

ex. thalidomide 

Term
types of teratogens
Definition

maternal diseases

substance use

environmental toxins

Term
signs of fetal alcohol syndrome
Definition
low nasal bridge, short nose, thin reddish upper lip, obscure the canthus (the inner corner of the eye) a normal feature in some people, small head circumference, epicanthic folds, short midface, indistinct philtrum (an underdeveloped groove in the center of the upper lip between the nose and lip edge)
Term

klinefelter's syndrome (XXY)

 

Definition
tall stature, slightly feminized, mildly impaired IQ, tendency to lose chest hairs, female-type pubic hair pattern, frontal baldness absent, poor beard growth, breast development, osteoporosis, testicular atrophy
Term
maternal diseases
Definition
german measles (rubella), syphilis/HIV, toxemia
Term
substance use
Definition
smoking, alcohol, drugs (rx and illegal), hormones, caffeine
Term
environmental toxins
Definition
raditation (x-ray), PCB's/insecticides, mercury/lead/etc.
Term
Defining "Child" through periods of development
Definition

-conception and prenatal 

-infancy

-early childhood

-middle childhood

-adolescence 

Term
dimensions of development
Definition

-biological 

-cognitive

-social 

-emotional

-behavioral 

Term
defining development
Definition

-qualitative changes

-quantitative changes 

Term
qualitative changes
Definition

-changes in type or kind

-development 

Term
quantitative changes
Definition

-changes in amount

-growth 

Term
child development
Definition

field of study that tries to understand that processes that goven the apperance and growth of children's 

-biological structures 

-psychological traits

-behavior

-understanding 

-ways of adapting to demands of life 

Term
why study child development
Definition

gain insight into:

-human nature

-origins of adult behavior 

-origins of differences 

*sex

*gender roles

*culture 

-origins 

-prevention and treatment of developmental problems 

optimize conditions of development 

Term
ancient times and middles ages
Definition

-children viewed as innately evil 

-age 7 is the "age of reason" 

-children were treated as miniature adults 

Term
John Locke
Definition
child came into world as taubla rasa, or "blank slates"
Term
tabula rasa
Definition
blank slates
Term
Jean-jacques rousseau
Definition
children are inherently good and moral
Term
industrial revolution
Definition

-nuclear family

-childhood is recognized as a time period of life 

Term

20th century 

 

Definition

-laws to protect child rights in labor, education, neglect 

-juvenile courts 

Term

Charles Darwin 

(1809-1882)

Definition

-theory of evolution 

-use of baby biography 

Term

G. Stanley Hall 

(1844-1924)

Definition

-child development as an academic discipline

-questionnaire methodology with children  

 

Term

Alfred Binet

(1857-1911)

Definition
first standardized intelligence test
Term
John B. Watson
Definition

-behaviorism-learning 

-nurture 

Term
Arnold Gesell
Definition

-biological maturation 

-nature 

Term
theories of development help us..
Definition

-describe

-explain

-predict

-influence events being studied 

Term
theories of child development
Definition

-related sets of statements about events

-include descriptive terms and concepts 

-based on certain assumptions

-allow explanations and predictions

-wide range of applicability

-influence events 

Term
psychoanalytic perspective
Definition

-view children (and adults) involed in conflict:

*internal basic drives conflict w/external limits 

*internalize 'external' demands and rules 

*conflict then occurs between these opposing inner forces 

-freud's theory of psychosexual development 

-erikson's theory of psychosocial development 

-stage theories

*distinct periods of development 

 

Term
freud's theory of psychosexual development
Definition

-sigmund freud (1856-1939)

-levels of awareness

-parts of personality 

-quantity of gratification at each stage 

 

Term
levels of awareness
Definition

-conscious level 

-unconscious level 

Term
parts of personality
Definition

-Id 

-ego

-superego 

Term
quantity of gratification at each stage
Definition
-fixated at that stage
Term
stages of psychosexual theory
Definition

-oral 

-anal

-phallic 

-latency

-genital 

Term
oral stage
Definition

-sucking & biting 

-early weaning or breast-fed too long

-fixation: nail-biting, smoking, "biting wit"

Term
anal stage
Definition

-control & elimination of waste

-excessively strict or permissive toilet training 

-fixation: anal-retentive (neatness); anal-expulsion (sloppiness) 

Term
Phallic stage
Definition

-parent-child conflict over masturbation

-view same-sex parent as rival 

Term
latency stage
Definition
sexual feelings remain unconscious
Term
genital stage
Definition

-begins at adolescene

-desirre sexual gratification through intercorse w/member of other sex

-interest in any other sexual gratification indicates fixation at an earlier stage of development 

Term
contributions
Definition

-comprehensive theory of childhood

-influenced parents, child-care workers and educators 

 

Term
criticisms
Definition

-based on patients (women) who were emotionally troubled 

-little empirical data

-placed too much emphasis on instincts and unconscious motives

-cant study the unconcious 

Term
Erik Erikson 
(1902-1994)
Definition

-modified and expanded freud's theory

-successful resolution of life crises bolsters sense of identity 

-differences from psychosexual development 

*focuses on development of self-identity 

*includes conscious and purposeful acts in development 

*extends stages to 8; throughout adulthood 

Term
stages of psychosocial development
Definition

-trust vs. mistrust 

-autonomy vs. shame and doubt

-initiative vs. guilt 

-idustry vs. inferiority 

-identity vs. role diffusion 

-intimacy vs. isolation 

-generativity vs. stagnation 

-ego inergrity vs. despair 

Term
evaluation of psychosocial development
Definition

-highly appealing 

*emphasizes choice and minimizes urges

*portrays people as prosocial and helpful 

-some empirical support

-still used in some areas

 

Term
behaviorism
Definition

-classical conditioning 

-operant conditiong 

Term
social cognitive theory
Definition

-observational learning 

-the mind active 

Term
behaviorism
Definition

-John B. Watson

*only addresses observable behavior 

*behaviors you can see 

-classical conditioning 

-B.F. skinner

-operant conditioning 

Term
classical conditioning
Definition

-simple learning

*neutral stimulus repeatedly paired w/second simulus 

*elicits the response usually brought by the second stimulus 

example: bell and pad method to eliminate bed-wetting 

Term
operant conditioning
Definition

-learn to do something becasue of its effects

-B.F. skinner-reinforcement 

*any stimulus that increases the frequency of the behavior they follow

 

Term
Positive reinforcers
Definition
something applied that increases the frequency of the behavior
Term
negative reinforcers
Definition
something removed that increases the frequencty of the behavior
Term
principles of operant conditioning
Definition

-positive reinforcers

-negative reinforcers 

Term
punishment
Definition

-aversive events that decrease the behavior they follow 

-effective in emergencies, but less preferable in general 

*does not suggest an alternative, acceptable form of behavior 

*tends to suppress undesirable behavior only under certain conditions 

*punished children may withdraw from the situaiton 

*can create anger and hostility 

*may generalize too far 

*may be imitated as a way of problem solving or coping with stress

-more preferable to reward children for desirable behavior 

Term
application of operant conditiong
Definition

-shaping 

-socialization of children 

Term

shaping 

 

Definition

-teaching complex behaviors

-reinforcing small steps toward the behavioral goal 

Term
socialization of children
Definition

-parent and child

-child and child

-teacher and child

*time out 

Term
social cognitive theory
Definition

-albert bandura 

-learning alters child's mental representation of environment and influences belief in ability to change the environment 

-child is an active learner 

-intentional observation of models for imitation 

Term
albert bandura
Definition

-acquire basic "know-how" though observational learning

-latent learning 

Term
evaluation of learning theories
Definition

-contributions 

-criticisms

Term
contributions
Definition

-meets the goals of describing, explaining, predicting, and influencing aspects of children's behavior 

-principles are abundant in education and clinical application 

 

Term
criticisms
Definition

-unclear if learning is only mechanical 

-underestimates role of biological-maturation factors 

Term
cognitive perspective
Definition

-focuses on children's mental processes

*how children perceive and mentally represent the world 

-Jean Piaget 

-Information-processing theory 

Term

Jean Piaget 

(1896-1980)

Definition
cognitive-developmental theory
Term
Piaget's cognitive-developmental theory
Definition

-working with binet on IQ tests for children, Piaget became interestd in children's wrong answers 

-piaget's work was not widely read until mid 1950's 

*difficult to understand

*reflected biological-cognitive perspective while behaviorism and psychoanalysis were popular 

-piaget's view of children as budding scientits 

Term

piaget's basic concepts 

 

Definition

-scheme

-adaptation

-assimilation 

-accommodation 

-equilibration 

Term
scheme
Definition
pattern of action involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge
Term
adaptation
Definition
interaction between child and the environement
Term
assimilation
Definition
responding to new object or event according to existing schemes
Term
accommodation
Definition
adjusting scheme to a new object or event
Term
equlibration
Definition
process of restoring equilibrium after a period of accommodation
Term
piaget's stages of cognitive-development theory
Definition

-four major stages:

*sensorimotor

*preoperational 

*concrete operational 

*formal operational 

-stages are universal 

-development is based on children's interations with their environment's 

-influential in many educational settings 

 

Term
evaluation of cognitive-development theory
Definition

-criticisms 

-contributions 

Term
criticisms
Definition

-piaget may have underestimated children's abilites by age 

-cognitive growth may be more gradual than piaget's distinct stages 

Term
contributions
Definition

-different view of children from psychoanalytic and behaviorist 

-foundation for research 

Term
information-processing theory
Definition

-influenced by the concepts of computer science 

-consider "limitations" of child

-applications in education

Term
Input
Definition
process of encoding info
Term
long-term memory
Definition
storage of info
Term
short-term memory
Definition
retrieval of info
Term
Output
Definition
manipulation of info to solve problems
Term
Mental Processes
Definition
software
Term
Brain
Definition
hardware
Term
limitations of child
Definition

-short-term memory

-ability to multi-task

Term
the biological perspective
Definition

-physical development 

*gains in height and weight

*development of nervous system 

*developments connected w/hormones, heredity

-ethology 

Term
what is ethology
Definition

-concern w/instinctive behavior patterns 

*influenced by Charles Darwin, Konrad Lorenz, & Niko Tinbergen 

-pre-wired---instinctive behavior patterns

*fixed action patterns (FAPs)

*influence on prenatal hormones 

-Lorenz's work on attachment during the first year 

*imprinting 

Term
evaluation of ethology
Definition

-assume instinctive behaviors can be modified through learning 

-suggestion that instincts play a role in human behavior 

Term
ecological perspective
Definition

-explains development through interactions between children and the settings in which they live 

-Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)

*focus on interactions between parent and child (bidirectional) 

Term
5 embedded systems
Definition

-microsystem

-mesosystem

-exosystem 

-macrosystem 

-chronosystem 

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