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| quantities that have more that one value |
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| how close the measurements in a series are to each other |
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| how close each measurement is to the actual value |
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| Solutions in which water is the solvent |
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| reactions in which insoluble substances are produced |
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| reactions between acids and bases |
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| reactions which result in a change in oxidation state |
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| Compounds that completely dissociate in to their ions in H2O |
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| Compounds that do not dissociate in to their ions in H2O. |
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| Most molecular compounds that dissolve in H2O are ____ |
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| A molecular substance in whose aqueous solution some of the molecules react with H2O to form ions, but where some do not |
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| A substance that ionizes in water to produce H+ ions. |
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| A substance that ionizes in water to produce OH- ions. |
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| one solution of known concentration is used to determine the concentration of another solution through a monitored reaction. |
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| The charge of an atom in a molecule or ion |
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| Each element in its pure form has the oxidation number of __ |
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| For monoatomic ions, the oxidation number is = |
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to the charge of the ion.
Sodium ion Na+1, Calcium ion Ca+2 |
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| fluorine always has an oxidation number of __ |
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| The oxidation number of O is ___ |
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| Loss of Electrons, oxidation number increases |
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| Gain of Electrons, oxidation number decreases (or is reduced) |
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| Compound responsible for the oxidation, but is itself reduced |
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| Compound responsible for the reduction, but is itself oxidized |
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two or more reactants form one product:
X + Y à Z |
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| The Compressibility of Gases (when moles and temp are constant) |
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| Pressure is inversely proportional to ___ |
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| As pressure increases, the volume ____ |
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| if a given quantity of gas is held at a constant pressure, its volume is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature |
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| Volume is proportional to ____ |
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| As temperature increases, the volume ___ |
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| General Gas Law or Combined Gas Law Equation |
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| the volume of a gas at a given temperature and pressure is directly proportional to the amount of gas in moles. |
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| 1 mol of gas occupies 22.414 L |
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| Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) : |
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| 0 oC or 273.15 K and 1atm |
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| The Ideal Gas Law Equation |
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| The Density of Gases Equation |
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| the pressure of each gas in the mixture |
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| Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure: |
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| the pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is the sum of the partial pressures of the different gases in the mixture. |
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| the movement of a gas through a tiny opening in a container into another container where the pressure is very low. |
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| The rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of its particles. |
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| The First Law of Thermodynamics |
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| The energy change for a system is the sum of the energy transferred as heat between the system and its surroundings and the energy transferred as work between the system and its surroundings. |
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| The First Law of Thermodynamics Equation |
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| Energy transferred as heat to or from the system |
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| Energy transferred as work to or from the system |
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| Is the thermodynamic function defined by H. It is equal to the amount of energy transferred as heat at a constant pressure. |
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| If ΔH is negative, energy is transferred as heat from the system to the surroundings. |
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| If ΔH is positive, energy is transferred as heat from the surroundings to the system. |
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| The energy transferred as a heat that is required to raise the temperature of 1 grams of a substance by 1 kelvin (when heating or cooling) |
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| Specific Heat Capacity Equation |
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| specific heat capacity, units in J/g*K |
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| When two objects which were once at different temperatures, reach the same temperature |
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| The method by which the energy evolved or required as heat in a chemical of physical process is measured. |
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qr + qsolution = 0
qsolution = Csolution x msolution x ΔT |
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| Standard Molar Enthalpies of Formation ΔfHo : |
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| The enthalpy change for the formation of 1 mol of a compound directly from its component elements in their standard states. |
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| Standard Molar Enthalpies of Formation ΔfHo Equation |
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| ΔrHo= ∑ ΔfHo(products) - ∑ ΔfHo(reactants) |
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| Electromagnetic Radiation: |
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| Characterized by wavelength and frequency and includes light, microwaves, television and radio signals x-rays, and other forms of radiation |
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| Assumed that the EMR emitted was caused by vibrating atoms called oscilators. And if each oscilator had a frequency, and the emitted radiation had a certain energy, the following eqn could be written. |
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| h = 6.6260693 x 10 -34 J*s |
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| Photoelectric Effect: electrons are ejected when light strikes the surface of a metal. |
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| The 4 visible lines in the spectrum of hydrogen are now known as the_____ |
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| If n = 3 the wavelength of the ___ line in the Hydrogen spectrum is obtained |
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| If n = 4 the wavelength of the ____ line is obtained |
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| If n = 5 and 6 the wavelength of the ___ lines are obtained |
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| Proposed that matter which was normally considered a particle, could also exhibit wave properties. Previously for light in the photoelectric effect. |
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| That both the energy and the location for the electron in the hydrogen atom can be described accurately |
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| Determined that for an object such as an electron in an atom, it is impossible to determine accurately both its position and its energy. |
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| Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: |
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| any attempt to determine accurately either the location or the energy will leave the other uncertain. |
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| Developed quantum mechanics or wave mechanics. Uses mathematical eqns of wave motion to generate wave functions which are used to describe a electrons in the atom. |
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| Elements or compounds that have unpaired spins and are attracted to magnets. |
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| Substances in which all the electrons are paired (with 2 electrons in each pair, having opposite spins) experience a slight repulsion when subjected to a magnet |
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| Pauli Exlusion Principle: |
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| No two electrons can have the same set of quantum numbers. No more than two electrons can be in an atomic orbital. |
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| The procedure in which electrons are assigned to orbitals. |
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| The energy required to remove an electron from an atom in the gas phase. |
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| The energy change for a process in which an electron is acquired by the atom in the gas phase or “how bad an atom wants an electron.” |
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| The trends are the same down a periodic group as for neutral atoms. Positive and negative ions increase in size, but they are much smaller and larger than the neutral atoms, respectively. |
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| Ions that have the same number of electrons (but different number of protons). N-3, O-2, F-, Na+,and Mg+2 |
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| forms when one of more valence electrons is transferred from one atom to another. Produces a positive and negative ion. The “bond” is the attraction between the ions |
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| forms by the sharing of valence electrons between atoms. |
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| D Holattice the enthalpy change that occurs when 1 mol of ionic solid separates into gaseous ions. |
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| electrostatic energy between two charges is directly proportional to the product of their magnitudes and inversely proportional to the distance between them. |
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| (Cation charge x Anion charge) / (Cation radius + Anion radius) |
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| the distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms |
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| Related to the atomic size and the order of the bond. |
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| Bond Dissociation Enthalpy: |
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| the enthalpy change for breaking a bond in a molecule with the reactants and products in the gas phase |
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| Bond Dissociation Enthalpy Equation |
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| ΔrH= ΣΔH(bonds broken)- ΣΔH(bonds formed) |
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| When the e- are shared unequally. |
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| If the difference between electronegativities is greater than 1.7, the bond is ____ |
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| If the difference between electronegativities is less than 1.7, the bond is ____ |
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| If the difference between electronegativities is 0.5 or less, the bond is _____ |
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| An octet of e- surrounding an atom is regarded as a stable configuration. |
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| The e- involved in the covalent bond. |
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| The e- not involved in bonding also called nonbonding e-. |
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| the charge on an atom in a molecule or polyatomic ion. |
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| Formal charge= group # of the atom- [ LPE + 1/2(BE)] |
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group # of the atom- [ LPE + 1/2(BE)]
Group #= gives the number of valence e- for a particular atom
LPE= number of lone pair e-
BE= number of bonding e- around the atom |
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| Alternative structures of the same molecule which have identical bonding patterns and equal energy. |
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| The actual structure of the molecule is a composite of the equivalent resonance structures. In the hybrid, the bonds are between a single and double bond in length. |
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| the number of bonding e- pairs shared by two atoms in a molecule. |
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| # of Shared pairs in all X-Y bonds / # of X-Y links in the molecule or ion |
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| Dipole/Induced Dipole Forces: |
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| polar molecules can induce a dipole in a molecules that do not have a permanent dipole. |
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| London dispersion forces are the only intermolecular forces that allow _____ molecules to interact |
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