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Chapters 3-4
The Biology of Behavior and the Brain
146
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
09/30/2014

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Term
Chromosome
Definition
A coiled up thread of DNA
Term
Gene
Definition
small segments of DNA that contain information for producing proteins
Term
DNA
Definition
a large molecule that contains genes
Term
genome
Definition
all the genetic information in DNA
Term
allele
Definition
different forms of a gene
Term
dominant genes
Definition
genes that show their effect even if there is only one allele for that trait in the pair
Term
recessive genes
Definition
genes that show their effects only when both alleles are the same
Term
behavioral genetics
Definition
the scientific study of the role of heredity in behavior
Term
monogenic transmission
Definition
the hereditary passing on of traits determined by a single gene
Term
polygenic transmission
Definition
the process by which any genes interact to create a single characteristic
Term
heritability
Definition
the extent to which a characteristic is influenced by genetics
Term
fraternal twins
Definition
twins that develop from two different eggs fertilized by two different sperm
Term
identical twins
Definition
twins that develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two independent cells
Term
twin adoption studies
Definition
research into hereditary influence on twins, both identical and fraternal, who were raised apart and who were raised together
Term
genotype
Definition
the entire genetic makeup of an organism
Term
epigenetics
Definition
study of changes in the way genes are turned on or off without a change in the sequence of DNA
Term
gene by environment interaction research
Definition
method of studying heritability by comparing genetic markers; allows researchers to assess how genetic differences interact with environment to produce certain behaviors in some people but not in others
Term
phenotype
Definition
the organism's observed characteristics
Term
central nervous system
Definition
the part of the nervous system that comprises the brain and spinal cord
Term
peripheral nervous system
Definition
the part of the nervous system that comprises all the nerve cells in the body outside the cns
Term
somatic nervous system
Definition
nerve cells of the peripheral nervous system that transmit sensory info to the cns and those that transmit info from the cns to the skeletal muscles
Term
autonomic nervous system
Definition
all the nerves of the peripheral nervous system that serve involuntary systems of the body like organs and glands
Term
sympathetic nervous system
Definition
the branch of the autonomic nervous system that activates bodily systems in times of emergency
Term
glial cells
Definition
cns cells that provide structural support, promote efficient communication between neurons , an serve as scavengers, removing cellular debris
Term
neurotransmitters
Definition
chemicals that transmit info between neurons
Term
soma
Definition
the cell body of the neurons
Term
neurons
Definition
the cells that process and transmit info in the nervous system
Term
axon
Definition
long projection that extends from a neurons soma; it transmits electrical impulses toward the adjacent neuron and stimulates the release of neurotransmitters
Term
dendrites
Definition
fingerlike projections from a neuron's soma that receive incoming messages from other neurons
Term
myelin sheath
Definition
the fatty substance wrapped around some axons , which insulates the axon, making the nerve impulse travel more efficiently
Term
synapse
Definition
the junction between an axon and the adjacent neuron , where info is transmitted from one neuron to another
Term
terminal buttons
Definition
little knobs at the end of the axon that contain tiny sacs of neurotransmitters
Term
sensory neurons
Definition
nerve cells that receive incoming sensory info from the sense organs
Term
motor neurons
Definition
nerve cells that carry commands for movement from the brain to the muscles of the body
Term
mirror neurons
Definition
nerve cells that are active when we observe others performing an action as well as when we are performing the same action
Term
interneurons
Definition
neurons that communicate only with other neurons
Term
action potential
Definition
the impulse of positive charge that runs down an axon
Term
ions
Definition
chemically charged particles that predominate in bodily fluids; found both inside and outside cells
Term
sting potential
Definition
the difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the axon when the neuron is at rest
Term
refectory period
Definition
the span of time, after an action potential has been generated, when the neuron is returning to its resting state and the neuron cannot generate an action potential
Term
all or none princple
Definition
the idea that once the threshold has been crossed, either an action potential fires or it does not
Term
enzymatic degradation
Definition
a way of removing excess neurotransmitter from the synapse in which enzymes specific for that neurotransmitter bind with the neurotransmitter and destroy it
Term
reuptake
Definition
a way of removing excess neurotransmitter from the synapse, in which excess neurotransmitter is returned to the sending, or presynaptic, neuron for storage in vesicles and future use
Term
graded potentials
Definition
small changes in membrane potential that by themselves are insufficient to trigger an action potential
Term
glutamate
Definition
a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain that increases the likelihood that a postsynaptic neuron will fir; important in learning, memory, neural processing, and brain development
Term
acetylcholine (ACh)
Definition
a neurotransmitter that controls muscle movement and plays a role in mental processes such as learning, memory, attention sleeping, and dreaming
Term
dopamine
Definition
a neurotransmitter released in response to behaviors that feel good or are rewarding to the person or animal also involved in voluntary motor control
Term
epinephrine
Definition
also known as adrenaline, a neurotransmitter that arouses bodily systems such as increasing heart rate
Term
serotonin
Definition
a neurotransmitter with wide ranging effects: involved in dreaming and in controlling emotional states, especially anger, anxiety, and depression
Term
GABA
Definition
major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain that tells postsynaptic neurons not to fire; it slows cns activity and is necessary to regulate and control neural activity
Term
norepinephrine
Definition
a neurotransmitter that activates the sympathetic response to stress, increasing heart rate, rate of respiration, and blood pressure in support of rapid action
Term
medulla
Definition
a hindbrain structure that extends directly from the spinal cord; regulates breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
Term
reflexes
Definition
inborn and involuntary behaviors such as coughing, swallowing, sneezing, or vomiting that are elicited by very specific stimuli
Term
pons
Definition
a hindbrain structure that serves as a bridge between lower brain regions and higher midbrain and forebrain activity
Term
cerebellum
Definition
a hindbrain structure involved in body movement, balance, coordination, fine tuning motor skills, and cognitive activates such as learning and language
Term
reticular formation
Definition
a network of nerve fibers that runs up through both the hindbrain and the midbrain; it is crucial to waking up and falling asleep
Term
thalamus
Definition
a forebrain structure that receives info from the senses and relays it to the cerebral cortex for processing
Term
hypothalamus
Definition
a limbic structures; the master regulator of almost all major drives and motives we have, such as hunger, thirst, temp, and sexual behavior; also controls the pituitary gland
Term
amygdala
Definition
small, almondshpaed structure located directly in front of the hippocampus; has connections with many important brain regions and is important for processing emotional information, especially that related to fear
Term
hippocampus
Definition
a limbic structure that wraps itself around the thalamus; plays a vital role in learning and memory
Term
cingulate gyrus
Definition
beltlike structure in the middle of the brain that plays an important role in attention and cognitive control
Term
basal ganglia
Definition
a collection of structures surrounding the thalamus involved in voluntary motor control
Term
cerebrum
Definition
each of the large halves of the brain that are covered with convolutions, or folds
Term
cerebral cortex
Definition
thin outer layer of the cerebrum, in which much of human thought, planning, perception, and consciousness takes place
Term
insula
Definition
small structure inside the cerebrum that plays an important role in the perception of bodily sensations, emotional states, empathy, and addictive behavior.
Term
corpus callosum
Definition
nerve fibers that connect the two hemispheres of the brain.
Term
aphasia
Definition
deficit in the ability to speak or comprehend language.
Term
Broca's area
Definition
area in the left frontal lobe responsible for the ability to produce speech.
Term
Wernicke's area
Definition
an area deep in the left temporal lobe responsible for the ability to speak in meaningful sentences and to comprehend the meaning of speech.
Term
neuroplasticity
Definition
the brain's ability to adopt new functions, reorganize itself, or make new neural connections throughout life, as a function of experience.
Term
neurogenesis
Definition
the development of new neurons
Term
synaptogenesis
Definition
the formation of entirely new synapses or connections with other neurons
Term
arborization
Definition
the growth and formation of new dendrites
Term
electroencephalography (EEG)
Definition
a method for measuring brain activity in which the electrical activity of the brain is recorded from electrodes placed on a person's scalp.
Term
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Definition
brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to produce detailed images of the structure of the brain and other soft tissues.
Term
event-related potential (ERP)
Definition
a special technique that extracts electrical activity from raw EEG data to measure cognitive processes.
Term
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Definition
brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to produce detailed images of activity in areas of the brain and other soft tissues.
Term
positron emission tomography (PET)
Definition
brain imaging technique that measures blood flow to active areas in the brain.
Term
endocrine system
Definition
system of glands that secrete and regulate hormones in the body.
Term
pituitary gland
Definition
the master endocrine gland of the body that controls the release of hormones from glands throughout the body.
Term
adrenal glands
Definition
endocrine structures that release hormones important in regulating the stress response and emotions.
Term
hormones
Definition
chemicals, secreted by glands, that travel in the bloodstream and carry messages to tissues and organs all over the body.
Term
catecholamines
Definition
chemicals released from the adrenal glands that function as hormones and as neurotransmitters to control ANS activation.
Term
cortisol
Definition
stress hormone produced by the body to ensure that the body gets enough fuel during emotional arousal and stress.
Term
sensation
Definition
a physical process: the stimulation of our sense organs by features of the outer world.
Term
transduction
Definition
the conversion of physical into neural information.
Term
perception
Definition
a psychological process: the act of organizing and interpreting sensory experience.
Term
sensory adaptation
Definition
the process by which our sensitivity diminishes when an object constantly stimulates our senses.
Term
absolute threshold
Definition
the lowest intensity level of a stimulus a person can detect half of the time.
Term
signal detection theory
Definition
the viewpoint that both stimulus intensity and decision-making processes are involved in the detection of a stimulus.
Term
difference threshold
Definition
the smallest amount of change between two stimuli that a person can detect half of the time.
Term
Weber's law
Definition
the finding that the size of a just noticeable difference is a constant fraction of the intensity of the stimulus.
Term
perceptual set
Definition
the effect of frame of mind on perception; a tendency to perceive stimuli in a certain manner.
Term
cornea
Definition
the clear hard covering that protects the lens of the eye.
Term
pupil
Definition
the opening in the iris through which light enters the eye.
Term
iris
Definition
the muscle that forms the colored part of the eye; it adjusts the pupil to regulate the amount of light that enters the eye.
Term
lens
Definition
the structure that sits behind the pupil; it bends the light rays that enter the eye to focus images on the retina.
Term
accommodation
Definition
the process by which the muscles control the shape of the lens to adjust to viewing objects at different distances.
Term
retina
Definition
the thin layer of nerve tissue that lines the back of the eye.
Term
difference threshold
Definition
the smallest amount of change between two stimuli that a person can detect half of the time.
Term
Weber's law
Definition
the finding that the size of a just noticeable difference is a constant fraction of the intensity of the stimulus.
Term
perceptual set
Definition
the effect of frame of mind on perception; a tendency to perceive stimuli in a certain manner.
Term
cornea
Definition
the clear hard covering that protects the lens of the eye.
Term
pupil
Definition
the opening in the iris through which light enters the eye.
Term
iris
Definition
the muscle that forms the colored part of the eye; it adjusts the pupil to regulate the amount of light that enters the eye.
Term
lens
Definition
the structure that sits behind the pupil; it bends the light rays that enter the eye to focus images on the retina.
Term
accommodation
Definition
the process by which the muscles control the shape of the lens to adjust to viewing objects at different distances.
Term
retina
Definition
the thin layer of nerve tissue that lines the back of the eye.
Term
photoreceptors
Definition
cells in the retina (called rods and cones) that convert light energy into nerve energy.
Term
dark adaptation
Definition
process of adjustment to seeing in the dark.
Term
rods
Definition
phtoreceptors that function in low illumination and play a key role in night vision; responsive to dark and light contrast.
Term
cones
Definition
photoreceptors that are responsible for color vision and are most functional in conditions of bright light.
Term
visual acuity
Definition
the ability to see clearly.
Term
fovea
Definition
spot on the back of the retina that contains the highest concentration of cones in the retina; place of clearest vision.
Term
optic nerve
Definition
structure composed of the axons of ganglion cells from the retina that carry visual information from the eye to the brain.
Term
optic chiasm
Definition
the point at which strands of the optic nerve from half of each eye cross over to the opposite side of the brain.
Term
feature detectors
Definition
neurons in the visual cortex that analyze the retinal image and respond to specific aspects of shapes, such as angles and movements.
Term
depth perception
Definition
the ability to see things in three dimensions and to discriminate what is near from what is far.
Term
binocular depth cues
Definition
aids to depth perception that rely on imput from both eyes.
Term
monocular depth cues
Definition
aids to depth perception that do not require two eyes.
Term
perceptual constancy
Definition
the ability of the brain to preserve perception of objects in spite of changes in retinal image when an object changes in position or distance from the viewer.
Term
continuity
Definition
Gestalt law that says we see points or lines in such a way that they follow a continuous path.
Term
similarity
Definition
Gestalt law that says we tend to group like objects together in visual perception.
Term
proximity
Definition
Gestalt law that says we tend to group objects together that are near one another.
Term
law of closure
Definition
The tendency to perceive a whole object in the absence of complete information.
Term
bottom-up processing
Definition
idea that perception is a process of building a perceptual experience from smaller pieces.
Term
top-down processing
Definition
perception of the whole based on our experience and expectations, which guide our perception of smaller elemental features of a stimulus.
Term
trichromatic color theory
Definition
the theory that all color that we experience results from a mixing of three colors of light (red, green, and blue).
Term
afterimages
Definition
visual images that remain after removal of or looking away from the stimulus.
Term
opponent-process theory
Definition
the theory that color vision results from cones linked together in three pairs of opposing colors, so that activation of one member of the pair inhibits activity in the other.
Term
tympanic membrane
Definition
the eardrum.
Term
semicircular canals
Definition
structure of the inner ear involved in maintaining balance.
Term
chochlea
Definition
a bony tube of the inner ear, which is curled like a snail's shell and filled with fluid.
Term
basilar membrane
Definition
a membrane that runs through the cochlea; contains the hair cells.
Term
hair cells
Definition
inner ear sensory receptors for sound that transduce sound vibrations into neural impulses.
Term
auditory nerve
Definition
the nerve that receives action potentials from the hair cells and transmits auditory information to the brain.
Term
mechano-receptors
Definition
receptor cells in the skin that are sensitive to different tactile qualities, such as shape, grooves, vibrations, and movements.
Term
bodily senses
Definition
the senses based in the skin, body, or any membrane surfaces.
Term
pain
Definition
a complex emotional and sensory experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage.
Term
gate control theory of pain
Definition
idea that the spinal cord regulates the experience of pain by either opening or closing neural channels, called gates, that transmit pain sensations to the brain.
Term
olfactory sensory neurons
Definition
the sensory receptors for smell that reside high up inside the nose.
Term
olfactory bulb
Definition
a forebrain structure that sends information either directly to the smell processing areas in the cortex or indirectly to the cortex by way of the thalamus.
Term
papillae
Definition
textured structures on the surface of the tongue; contain thousands of taste buds.
Term
taste buds
Definition
structures inside the papillae of the tongue that contain the taste receptor cells.
Term
taste receptor cells
Definition
sensory receptors for taste that reside in the taste buds.
Term
synesthesia
Definition
an unusual sensory experience in which a person experiences sensations in one sense when a different sense is stimulated.
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