Term
| Gibbs Free Energy equation |
|
Definition
| (delta)G = (delta)H - T(delta)S |
|
|
Term
| (delta)G in free energy equation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| (delta)H in free energy equation |
|
Definition
| enthalpy (potential energy) |
|
|
Term
| (delta)S in free energy equation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| T in free energy equation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| endergonic free energy equation |
|
Definition
| positive (delta)G, energy needs to go in |
|
|
Term
| exergonic free energy equation |
|
Definition
| negative (delta)G, energy comes out |
|
|
Term
| big single molecule --> more little molecules = positive or negative (delta)G in free energy equation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| favorable (delta)H in free energy equation: positive or negative? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| favorable (delta)S in free energy equation: positive or negative? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| negative (delta)H & spontaneous at all T: (delta)S & (delta)G? |
|
Definition
| positive (delta)S, negative (delta)G |
|
|
Term
| negative (delta)S, positive (delta)G: (delta)H & description? |
|
Definition
| positive (delta)H, not spontaneous |
|
|
Term
| either (delta)G, nonspontaneous at high T, spontaneous at low T: (delta)H & (delta)S? |
|
Definition
| negative (delta)H, negative (delta)S |
|
|
Term
| positive (delta)H, either (delta)G, positive (delta)S: description |
|
Definition
| spontaneous at high T, nonspontaneous at low T |
|
|
Term
| if (delta)G < 0, reaction can spontaneously proceed to the right or left? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| if (delta)G > 0, reaction can spontaneously proceed to the right or left? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| if (delta G) = 0, the reaction is at _____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
spontaneous reaction:
(delta)G?
reactants < or > energy than products?
reactants have more or less entropy than potential energy? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
nonspontaneous:
(delta)G?
reactants < or > energy than products?
reactants have more or less entropy than potential energy? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what structural characteristic confers RNA polymer the ability to be catalytic? |
|
Definition
| the extra hydroxyl group on the 2' carbon acts as a base by accepting a proton |
|
|
Term
| how many intertwined chains are in DNA? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where are phosphates & bases located in DNA & why? |
|
Definition
phosphates: outside, hydrophilic
bases: inside, hydrophobic, hydrogen bonding |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| G-Protein Coupled Receptor (transmembrane protein), ligand bonds to GCPR --> changes shape, G-protein loses GDP & brings to GTP (active), brings ligand's information to an inner enzyme (secondary messenger) |
|
|
Term
| when the G-protein decreases its affinity for binding GDP & is a better fit to bind GTP, the G-protein is now _____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the G-protein becomes inactive by _____ GTP to GDP |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the G-protein, because it changes shape, releases GDP & binds to GTP, thus _____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the G-protein _____ GTP when it is ready to become inactive again |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sulfhydryl functional group |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
O
II
O- P -OH
I
OH (energy) |
|
|
Term
| the interior of globular proteins are stabilized by _____ amino acid R-groups because they turn away from water |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| secondary structures of amino acids |
|
Definition
| alpha helix or beta pleated sheet; made by hydrogen bonds between peptide backbones |
|
|
Term
| difference between DNA & RNA structures |
|
Definition
| RNA's hydroxyl group makes it more reactive & allows it to catalyze reactions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inhibits any protein without binding to an active site (binds to allosteric site to change conformation of protein) |
|
|
Term
| when the pH is _____, hemoglobin will release oxygen to the tissue |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when the pH is _____, there is an increase in oxygen holding by hemoglobin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. substrate binding
2. transition state
3. product release/termination |
|
|
Term
| is DNA or RNA more stable in basic conditions? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how many hydrogen bonds do G and C form? A and T? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| central carbon, hydrogen, carboxyl group, R group, amino group |
|
|
Term
| what part of amino acid acts as an acid? as a base? |
|
Definition
| carboxyl group; amino group |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| carbon from carboxyl and N from amino group between 2 individual amino acids; polar covalent bond |
|
|
Term
| what molecule is given off when peptide bond forms between amino acids? |
|
Definition
| H2O (dehydration synthesis/condensation) |
|
|
Term
| SH (functional group); polar? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| CH3 (functional group); polar? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| OH (functional group); polar? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| NH2 (functional group); polar? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| C=O (functional group); polar? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| allosteric regulation VS competitive regulation |
|
Definition
| allosteric = not at active site; competitive = active site |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| H2O + CO2 <--> H2CO3 <--> HCO3- + H+ |
|
|
Term
| 1 Calorie (nutritional calories) = ? calories |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the ability for RNA to replicate occurs because... |
|
Definition
| hydrogen bonds between complementary bases |
|
|
Term
| T or F: a polypeptide chain can coil or fold in on itself when disulfide bonds form between the amino & carbonyl groups on its backbone |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| as the amount of GTP increases, you would predict that G-protein activity would... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 experiments that can be used to determine primary structure of protein |
|
Definition
| altering pH from basic to acidic environment, denature the protein |
|
|
Term
| what is important in determining the secondary structure of DNA? |
|
Definition
| hydrogen bonds & hydrophobic interactions |
|
|
Term
| what does it mean when (delta)G = 0? |
|
Definition
| the system is at equilibrium |
|
|
Term
| T or F: hydrogen bonds give proteins beta pleated sheet or alpha helices in its tertiary structure |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| spontaneous reaction = reactants are more or less ordered than the products |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| electron sharing between the peptide bond & the oxygen of the carbonyl group in amino acid polymers simulate _____ conditions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| T or F: an increase in entropy always accompanies a drop in potential energy |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what other disorder could accompany PKU? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why do GCPR proteins usually generate faster responses than other systems? (2) |
|
Definition
| hydrophilic signals tend to generate faster responses & second messengers systems are often faster than first messenger responses |
|
|
Term
primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary: which structures does it have?
DNA:
RNA: |
|
Definition
DNA = primary & secondary
RNA = all 4 |
|
|
Term
| 3 side chain interactions found in tertiary structure |
|
Definition
| covalent bonding, disulfide bonds, ionic bonding |
|
|
Term
| Watson & Crick's discovery that the DNA helix is 2.0 x 10^-9 m apart relates to what feature of DNA? |
|
Definition
| cytosine binds with guanine |
|
|
Term
| functional group that acts like an acid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is SPONCH & what does each element do? |
|
Definition
S: sulfur, amino acids
P: phosphorous, nucleotides
O: oxygen, H2O & CO2
N: nitrogen, nucleotides & amino acids
C: carbon, carbohydrates
H: hydrogen, H2O & H+ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| electron, proton, neutron |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the strongest bond? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| polar or nonpolar covalent bond depends on _____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the attraction of opposite charges after gain/loss of electrons to satisfy rule of 8 |
|
|
Term
| in water, the electrons are pulled towards ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| attractive to something else |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| H2O + CO2 <--> H2CO3 <--> HCO3- + H+ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the capacity to perform work |
|
|
Term
| electronegativity increases in periodic table |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1: energy can't be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed
2: entropy increases spontaneously |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the amount of energy in a system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| amino, carboxyl, central carbon, H, R |
|
|
Term
| what protein structure do hair perms affect? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 types of secondary structure |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| change in temperature or pH |
|
|
Term
| quaternary structure of hemoglobin |
|
Definition
| tetramer (2 alpha & 2 beta) |
|
|
Term
| generally, molecules ending in (-in) are _____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. molecule binds to receptor
2. receptor changes shape/conformation
3. G-protein is released from receptor (shape of protein changes)
4. GDP leaves
5. GTP binds
6. G-protein is activated & moves to another protein & activates it by hydrolyzing GTP
7. newly activated protein indicates signal
8. a new GDP binds to G-protein re-associates with receptor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| between phosphate & sugar; OH from phosphate, H from C 3' |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cytosine, uracil, thymine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| semi-conservative replication |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 steps of DNA replication |
|
Definition
1. strand separation
2. base pairing with template
3. polymerization
4. the original model has been copied |
|
|
Term
| main RNA secondary structure |
|
Definition
| hairpin (loop & double stranded double helix) |
|
|
Term
| 4 steps of RNA replication |
|
Definition
1. complementary base pair
2. copied strand polymerizes
3. copy & template separate
4. copy serves as new template |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| DNA (transcription)-->RNA (translation)-->protein |
|
|
Term
| 2 nucleic acids for genetic material |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 nucleic acids for energy transfer |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how many bases specify a single amino acid? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| change in nucleotide sequence that doesn't change the amino acid specified by codon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| change in sequence that changes amino acid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| change in sequence to stop codon |
|
|
Term
| frameshift point mutation |
|
Definition
| addition/deletion of a single nucleotide |
|
|
Term
| _____ grow by multiplication not addition |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| evolution theory has ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| human selection on natural variations within populations |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| change in environment --> change in gene expression --> change in phenotypic expression --> change in interaction with environment |
|
|
Term
| chemical evolution theory |
|
Definition
| in addition to small molecules, complex carbon-containing substances exist & are required for life. early in earth's history, simple chemical compounds combined to form more complex carbon-containing substances before the evolution of life |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an element's characteristic number of protons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the sum of the protons & neutrons in an atom, written as a superscript to the left of an element's symbol or underneath of it |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| forms of an element with different numbers of neutrons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an average of all the mass numbers of the naturally occurring isotopes based on their abundance |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the specific region in which electrons move around atomic nuclei |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a level into which orbitals are grouped |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the outermost shell of an atom |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the electrons found in the valence shell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the number of unpaired electrons found in an atom |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| attractions that bind atoms together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a strong attraction where two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the property of some atoms to hold the electrons in covalent bonds much more tightly than other atoms do |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when electrons are shared equally or symmetrically |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| asymmetric sharing of electrons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the electrons are completely transferred from one atom to the other |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an atom or molecule that carries a full charge rather than the partial charges that arise from polar covalent bonds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| indicate only the numbers & types of atoms in a molecule |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| indicate which atoms in a molecule are bonded together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| provide information on the three-dimensional shape of molecules & indicate the relative sizes of the atoms involved |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| accurately depict the spatial relationships between atoms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an agent for dissolving substances & getting them into solution |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| attraction between like molecules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| attraction between unlike molecules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree C |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the energy required to change 1 gram of a substance from a liquid to gas |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one substance is combined with others or broken down into another substance |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| substances that give up protons during chemical reactions & raise the hydronium ion concentration of water |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| molecules or ions that acquire protons during chemical reactions & lower the hydronium ion concentration of water |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the number of moles of the substance present per liter of solution |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a logarithmic notation that expresses the concentration of protons in a solution & thus whether it is acidic or basic |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| compounds that minimize changes in pH |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| relatively constant conditions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a dynamic but stable state |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| heat is absorbed during the process |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the capacity to do work or to supply heat |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the kinetic energy of molecular motion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a measure of how much thermal energy an object's molecules possess |
|
|
Term
| first law of thermodynamics |
|
Definition
| energy is conserved - it cannot be created or destroyed but only transferred & transformed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the amount of disorder in a system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| do not interact with water |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a molecular subunit such as an amino acid, a nucleotide, or a sugar |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when a large number of monomers are bonded together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of linking monomers together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a very large molecule that is made up of smaller molecules joined together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the C-N covalent bond that results from the peptide bond condensation reaction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when fewer than 50 amino acids are linked together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| polymers that contain 50 or more amino acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any chain of amino acid residues |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the unique sequence of amino acids in a protein |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the level of organization in proteins that is created in part by hydrogen bonding between components of the peptide-bonded backbone |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the polypeptide's back-bone is coiled |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| segments of a peptide chain bend 180 degreed & then fold in the same plane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the overall shape of a polypeptide that results from interactions between R-groups or between R-groups & the backbone |
|
|
Term
| disulfide (two sulfur) bonds |
|
Definition
| create strong links between distinct regions of the same polypeptide or two separate polypeptides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the combination of polypeptides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| groups of multiple proteins that assemble to carry out a particular function |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| specific proteins that facilitate folding in proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| infections, disease-causing agents that certain proteins can be folded into |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a protein that functions as a catalyst |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reactant molecules brought together by enzymes to interact with atoms involved in a reaction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| life began as a polymer called a nucleic acid - specifically ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| monomers that make up nucleic acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the result of the formation between a hydroxyl on the sugar component of one nucleotide & the phosphate group of another nucleotide |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bombarding DNA with X-rays & analyzing how it scattered the radiation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one DNA strand runs in the 5'-->3' direction while the other strand was oriented 3'-->5' |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the antiparallel strands are twisted together so the coiled sugar-phosphate backbones end up on the outside & the nitrogenous bases on the inside |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| complementary base pairing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the original strand of DNA in replication |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a new strand in DNA replication |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| if the section where the fold occurs in RNA includes unpaired bases, then the stem-and-loop configuration results |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of converting archived information into molecules that actually do things in the cell |
|
|
Term
| knock-out (null)/loss-of-function alleles |
|
Definition
| alleles that do not function |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the series of steps by which organisms synthesize substances |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any technique for picking certain types of mutants out of many randomly generated mutants |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| short-lived molecules of RNA that carry information out of the nucleus from DNA to the site of protein synthesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of RNA (polymerizes ribonucleotides into strands of RNA) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| DNA codes for RNA which codes for proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of copying hereditary information in DNA to RNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of using the information in the nucleic acids to synthesize proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the rules that specify the relationship between a sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA & the sequence of amino acids in a protein |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| AUG; signals that protein synthesis should begin at that point on the mRNA molecule |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| termination codons; UAA, UAG, UGA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| point mutations that do not change the amino acid sequence of the gene product |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a single addition or deletion mutation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a codon that specifies an amino acid is changed by mutation to one that specifies a stop codon |
|
|
Term
| 3 categories of mutations |
|
Definition
| beneficial, neutral, deleterious |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when segments on a chromosome are flipped & rejoined |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when segments on a chromosome become attached to a different chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when a segment of a chromosome is lost |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when additional copies of a segment are present |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the complete set of chromosomes in a cell |
|
|
Term
| Aristotle's 2 central claims to evolution |
|
Definition
1. species are fixed types
2. some species are higher (more complex/better) than others |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| individuals of the same species that are living in the same area at the same time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| instead of being unimportant or an illusion, variation among individuals in a population was the key to understanding the nature of species |
|
|
Term
| 3 reasons why the theory of evolution by natural selection was revolutionary |
|
Definition
1. it overturned the idea that species are static and unchanging
2. it replaced typological thinking with population thinking
3. it was scientific |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any trace of an organism that lived in the past |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| all the fossils that have been found on Earth & described in scientific literature |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a reduces or incompletely developed structure that has no function or reduces function but is clearly similar to functioning organs or structures in closely related species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. the individual organisms that make up a population vary in the traits they possess
2. some of the trait differences are heritable
3. in each generation, many more offspring are produced that can survive
4. the subset of individuals that survive best & reproduce the most is not a random sample of the population |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| individuals with certain characteristics produce more offspring than do individuals without those characteristics |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a change in an individual's phenotype that occurs in response to change in natural environmental conditions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| acclimatization in study organisms or in a laboratory |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a compromise between traits, in terms of how those traits perform in the environment |
|
|
