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Definition
| all chemical reactions and physical work of the cell |
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Definition
1. Assembles smaller molecules into larger macro-molecules needed for the cell
2. Degrades macro-molecules into smaller molecules and yields energy
3. Energy is conserved into the form of ATP or HEAT |
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Any process that results in the synthesis of cell molecules and structures (usually requires energy input)
-making new molecule from existing parts |
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| the breakdown of bonds of larger molecules into smaller molecules (often releases energy) |
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| are proteins that work as catalysts |
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| chemicals that increas the rate of a chemical reaction without becoming part of the products of being consumed in the reaction |
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| What do catalysts do to activation engery |
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Definition
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| What is unique about each catalyst? |
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Definition
| unique characteristics such as shape, specificity and function |
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| target molecule; each enzyme has a active site for these |
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| What are enzymes greatly effected by |
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Definition
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| 1st enzyme in glycolysis? |
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Definition
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| the amount of energy which must be overcome for a reaction to proceed |
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| How do enzymes promote a reaction? |
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Definition
| by serving as a PHYSICAL SITE upon which the reactant molecules (substrates) can be positioned for various interactions |
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Term
| Enzyme-substrate interaction |
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Definition
-for a reaction to take place, a temporary enzyme-substrate union must occur at the active site
-"lock and key" fit
-these bond are weak and easily reversible |
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Definition
| the enzyme and substrate bound together |
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| supporting the work of enzymes |
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Definition
| activate enzymess, help bring the active site and substrate close together, and participate directly in chemical reaction with the enzyme-substrate complex |
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Definition
| Organic compounds that work in conjunction with a apoenzyme to preform a necessary alteration of a substrate |
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Definition
| remove a chemical group from one substrate molecule and adds it to another substrate |
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| What is one of the most important components of coenzymes? |
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Definition
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Definition
| apoenzyme (protein enzyme) + co-factor = holoenzyme = catalyzes actual function/reaction |
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| Classification of enzymes? (3 ways) |
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Definition
1. Site of action
2. type of action
3. substrate in which they work with |
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Definition
breaks down lactose down into glucose and galatose
AND
hydrolyzes beta-lactam ring |
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Definition
| synthesizes a strand of DNA using the complementary strand as a model |
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Definition
catalyzes the conversion of pyuvric acid to lactic acid
AND
catalyzes the reduction 02 |
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Definition
always present and in relatively constant amounts
(ex. enzymes of glycolysis) |
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Production is either induced or repressed in response to a change in the concentration of the substrate
(ex. lactose (lac) operon in E. coli) |
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Definition
| the E. coli n the presence of lactose turns on its enzymes to break down lactose... regulated enzyme you fool! |
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Definition
| water is one of the products |
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Definition
| breaking down peptide bonds between amino acids. requires a water molecule that adds H and OH to the amino acids |
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| Virulence factors or toxins |
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Definition
-unique exoenzymes that pathogens secrete
-these help them avoid host defenses or promote multiplication in tissues |
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Definition
| when enzymes are subjected to changes in normal conditions they become unstable or labile |
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Definition
| the weak bond that maintain the native shape of the apoenzyme are broken |
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| Enzymes that play a role in necessary molecular conversions by directing the transfer of function groups |
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Definition
-aminotransferases
-phosphotransferases
-methyltransferases
-decarboxylases |
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| How do metabolic reactions usually occur? |
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Definition
in a multi-series step or pathway
-each step is catalyzed by an enzyme
-each pathway has one or more enzyme pacemakers that set the rate of a pathway's progression |
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| What are intermedates in a metabolic pathway? |
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Definition
| Not the start or finished product... DUH |
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Term
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Definition
It is a direct control on the action of enzymes
-the cell supplies a molecule that resembles the enzyme's normal substrate, which then occupies and blocks the enzyme's active site |
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| Non-Competitive inhibition? |
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Definition
direction controls on the action of enzymes
-the enzymes has TWO binding sites- the active site and the regulatory site; a regulator molecule binds to the regulatory site providing a negative feed back mechanism |
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Definition
| Decrease enzyme expression (product goes back to DNA and says "ENOUGH!") |
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Definition
| Increase enzyme expression (product goes back to DNA and says "MORE MORE") |
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Definition
a reaction that releases energy as it goes forward: -delta G
usually catobolic RXNS |
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Definition
a reaction that is driven forward with the addition of energy: +delta G
usually anabolic RXNS |
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Definition
| how biological systems extract energy, always occur in pairs (an electron donor paired with an electron acceptor |
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Definition
Repeatedly accept and release electrons and hydrogen
-some are coenzymes that transfer electrons and hyrogens
-ex. NAD, FAD, NADP |
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Term
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Definition
adenosine triphosphate
-Metabolic Money |
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Term
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Definition
-nitrogen base
-5 carbon sugar
-chain of three phosphate group |
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| How does ATP yield energy |
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Definition
breaking of bonds between two phosphates of ATP yeilds ADP plus the inorganic phosphate
-the most energy comes from breaking the 3rd group |
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| how much energy comes from ATP |
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Definition
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| Substrate Level Phosphorylation |
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Definition
phosphate off substrate to ATP OR the transfer of phosphate group
- phosphoenolpyruvate+ADP -> pyruvate+ATP |
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Definition
| a series of biochemical reactions |
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| what is often the nutrient going through catabolism? |
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Definition
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| What are the three major catabolism pathways? |
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Definition
1. Aerobic respiration
2. Fermentation
3. Anaerobic Respiration |
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Definition
| series of reactions that convert glucose to CO2 and allows the cell to recover significant amounts of energy; requires OXYGEN (makes water) |
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| use only glycolysis to incompletely oxidize glucose |
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Definition
| does not use molecular oxygen as the final acceptor |
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Definition
-its a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions
-electrons are transfered from fuel molecules to oxygen as a final electron acceptor
-provides ATP and metabolic intermediates for many other pathways
-glucose is the starting compound |
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| What does glycolysis convert glucose to? |
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Definition
| it goes through several steps into pyruvic acid OR pyruvavte |
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Definition
1st phase: 2 ATP taken in
2nd phase: 2 three carbon molecules made
3rd phase: making 4 ATP and 2 NADH |
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Definition
-2 pyruvate molecules (can under go more catabolic RNX to extract more energy)
-2 ATP
-2 NADH |
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| What does Glycolysis convert glucose into? |
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Definition
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Definition
1st: 2 atp taken in
2nd: 2 three carbon molecules made
3rd: making 4 atp and 2 nadh |
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Definition
2 pyruvate molecules
2 ATP
2 NADH |
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Term
| What does pyruvic acid serve as? |
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Definition
| an important position in several pathways |
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Term
| Krebs Cycle take place where? |
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Definition
| in the cytoplasm of bacteria and mitochondrial matrix in eukaryotes |
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Term
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Definition
1 glucose molecule makes 2 pyruvate
each pyruvate makes: 3 CO2, 4 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP
so total
8 NADH
2 FADH2
2 ATP |
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Term
| After Krebs cycle what is up with glucose? |
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Definition
| It has now be completely oxidized to carbon dioxide |
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Term
| What is the final processing mill |
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Definition
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| What do electrons pass through in the electron transport chain? |
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Definition
| membrane carries called CYTOCHROMES |
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| How is atp formed in electron transport chain |
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Definition
the protons pass through ATP synthase to form ATP
this is an endergonic reaction-- energy comes from protons moving down the gradient |
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Definition
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Definition
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| Aerobic respiration yields....? |
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Definition
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Definition
| functions like aerobic system except it utilizes oxygen-containing ions rather than free oxygen as the final electron acceptor |
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Term
| Anaerobic Respiration yield? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the incomplete oxidation of glucose or other carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen |
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Term
| What does fermentation use as the terminal electron acceptor |
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Definition
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Term
| How are bacteria able to grow as fast using fermentation as they would in the presence of O2 |
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Definition
| they increase the rate of glycolysis.. the 2 ATP build up |
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Term
| Products of fermentation? |
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Definition
| alcoholic beverages, organic acids, dairy products, vitamins, antobiotics |
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| Two general categories of fermentation? |
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Definition
1. Alcoholic fermentation
2. Acidic Fermentation |
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| Commonality between Alcoholic and Acidic Fermentation |
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Definition
| NADH getting reformed into NAD... this allows glycolysis to continue |
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| Alcoholic fermentation products |
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Definition
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| Acidic Fermentation products |
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Definition
| varied... but always lactic acid |
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Term
| lactic acid bacteria fermentation product |
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Definition
| they ferment pyruvate and reduce it to lactic acid (occurs in our muscles) |
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Term
| Heterolactic fermentation |
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Definition
| when glucose is fermented to a mixture of lactic acid, acetic acid, carbon dioxide and NAD |
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Term
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Definition
| Produced a combination of acetic, lactic, succinic and formic acids and lowers the pH of a medium to about 4 |
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Term
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Definition
| S. coccus or latobacilus form lacti acid... souring of milk |
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Definition
| The property of a system to integrate catabolic and anabolic pathways to improve cell efficiency |
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Term
| where do monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, nitrogen bases and vitamins come from (in regards to anabolism) |
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Definition
1. enter the cell from outside as nutrients
2. Can be synthesized through various cellular pathways |
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Term
| Amino acids, protein synthesis and nucleic acid synthesis? |
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Definition
some organisms can synthesize all 20 amino acids
other organisms (especially animals) must acquire the essential ones from their diets |
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Term
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Definition
| when anabolism produces enough macro-molecules to serve two cells, then the cell undergoes binary fisson |
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