Term
| The 7 major divisions of the CNS |
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Definition
-Cerebrum
-Diencephalon
-Midbrain
-Cerebellum
-Pons
-Medulla oblongata
-Spinal cord |
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Term
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Definition
-Learning & memory
-Mood
-Motor control |
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Term
| the 3 major parts of the brain stem |
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Definition
-medulla oblongata
-pons
-midbrain |
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Term
| components of the forebrain |
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Definition
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Term
| components of the hindbrain |
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Definition
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Term
| components of the cerebrum |
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Definition
-Cerebral cortex
-Basal ganglia
-Hippocampus
-Amygdala |
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Term
| components of the diencephalon |
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Definition
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| the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex |
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Definition
-the frontal lobe
-the parietal lobe
-the occipital lobe
-the temporal lobe |
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Term
| Cavities in the CNS are filled with |
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Definition
| cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) |
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Term
| the cavities in the central nervous system filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) |
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Definition
-Ventricles (brain)
-Central canal (spinal cord) |
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Term
| components of gray matter |
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Definition
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Term
| components of white matter |
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Definition
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Term
which ventricle is number 1?
[image] |
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Definition
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Term
which ventricle is number 2?
[image] |
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Definition
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Term
which ventricle is number 3?
[image] |
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Definition
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Term
which ventricle is number 4?
[image] |
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Definition
| to central canal of spinal cord |
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Term
which ventricle is number 5?
[image] |
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Definition
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Term
which ventricle is number 6?
[image] |
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Definition
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Term
| the role of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) |
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Definition
| maintains the proper environment within the interstitial fluid of the brain |
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Term
| why gray matter appears gray |
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Definition
| because it's not myelinated |
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Term
| some structures within the cerebrum |
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Definition
-cerebral cortex
-subcortical regions |
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Term
| some structures within the cerebral cortex |
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Definition
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Term
| some structures within the convolutions |
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Definition
-gyrus (peak)
-sulcus (valley) |
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Term
| some structures within the subcortical regions |
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Definition
-Basal ganglia
-Hippocampus
-Amygdala |
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Term
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Definition
| a large series of axonal bundles, or tracts, that allow communication between the 2 hemispheres of the brain |
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Term
| the "5th lobe" of the cerebral cortex |
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Definition
| the insular cortex or insular lobe |
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Term
| a cross-section of the brain |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
the dividing line between the temporal lobe on the bottom and the frontal and parietal lobes that exist above it
[image] |
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Definition
the dividing line between the frontal lobe and the parietal lobe
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| the deep chasm or dividing line between the two cerebral hemispheres at that cortical level |
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Term
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Definition
| one hemisphere being more involved in certain tasks than the other |
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Term
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Definition
| cross over (tracts do along the spinal cord between the cerebrum and the very lower part or parts of the CNS) |
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Term
| where tracts in the CNS usually decussate (cross over) |
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Definition
| at the level of the spinal cord or the medulla oblongata |
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Term
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Definition
| pertaining to fibers, this refers to fibers crossing over to the other side as they make their way up and down between the brain and the spinal cord |
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Term
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Definition
| pertaining to fibers, this refers to fibers staying on the same side as they make their way up and down between the brain and the spinal cord |
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Term
| are most fibers in the CNS contralateral or ipsilateral? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| some tasks the left side of the brain is more involved in |
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Definition
-speech
-writing
-left ear
-main language center
-calculation
-right visual half field |
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Term
| some tasks the right side of the brain is more involved in |
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Definition
-right ear
-simple language comprehension
-spatial concepts
-left visual half field |
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Term
| the functions of the different parts of the brain |
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Definition
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Term
| some functions of the frontal lobe |
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Definition
| extremely important for coordinating our voluntary skeletal muscle movements |
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Term
| prefrontal cortex part of the... |
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Definition
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Term
| some functions of the prefrontal cortex |
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Definition
| it's where all of our very highest cognitive functions exist |
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Term
| some functions of the parietal lobe |
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Definition
-important for somatosensory perception
-a lot of processing of somatosensory information as well as other sorts of sensory information |
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Term
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Definition
| our sense of our own bodies |
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Term
| some functions of the occipital lobe |
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Definition
| visual processing; primary visual cortex |
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Term
| some functions of the temporal lobe |
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Definition
-very important in terms of learning and memory and connections to other parts of the brain that are important for learning and memory
-important for auditory processing |
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Term
| the importance of the precentral gyrus |
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Definition
| it houses a topographical map of the motor system |
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Term
| the importance of the postcentral gyrus |
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Definition
| it houses a topographical map of the somatosensory system |
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Term
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Definition
the region of the left hemisphere’s frontal lobe that is dedicated to the output of language
[image] |
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Term
| “posterior language area” aka... |
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Definition
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Term
| “posterior language area” aka Wernicke’s area |
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Definition
the region of the left hemisphere’s parietal lobe that is dedicated to the processing of language
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| homunculus of the precentral gyrus and postcentral gyrus, respectively |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
basically a topographical map of parts of the brain being associated with specific parts of the body
[image][image] |
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Term
| why each side of the body is, for the most part, associated with the opposite side of the brain |
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Definition
| because of decussation or crossover that occurs with most of the fibers as they make their way from the brain down out into the spinal cord and out into the periphery |
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Term
| depiction of the layers of the cerebral cortex |
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
| the 2 major neuron types in the cerebral cortex |
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Definition
-projection neurons
-local interneurons |
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Term
| the neurons that function as the major output cells of any given piece of the cerebral cortex |
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Definition
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Term
| types of projection neurons within the cerebral cortex |
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Definition
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Term
| types of local interneurons in the cerebral cortex |
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Definition
| Located in all cell layers |
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Term
| type of projection neuron that's glutamatergic |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| neuron that releases glutamate from its nerve terminal |
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Term
| how pyramidal cells communicate with downstream neurons |
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Definition
| by making and releasing glutamate; this is usually excitatory |
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Term
| is glutamate usually excitatory or inhibitory? |
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Definition
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Term
| specific characteristic of pyramidal cells in the cerebral cortex |
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Definition
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Term
| specific characteristic of local interneurons in the cerebral cortex |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| neuron that releases GABA from its nerve terminal |
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Term
| is GABA usually excitatory or inhibitory? |
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Definition
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Term
| function of the basal ganglia |
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Definition
| Control of voluntary movement |
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Term
| function of the hippocampus |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-Emotion & memory
-Part of the “limbic system” |
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Term
| function of the limbic system |
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Definition
| it appears to be important in memory, the control of autonomic function, and some aspects of emotion and behavior |
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Term
| some parts of the limbic system |
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Definition
-hippocampus
-amygdala
-hypothalamus
-parts of the cerebral cortex
-thalamus
-parts of the basal ganglia, in particular the nucleus accumbens
-parts of the brain stem
-insula or insular cortex |
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Term
| functions of the thalamus |
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Definition
“Relay center” for ascending somatosensory information
Integration of motor information between basal ganglia, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex
-also important for "top-down" control |
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Term
| functions of the hypothalamus |
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Definition
-Regulation of “essential” behaviors: body temp, growth, eating & drinking, reproduction, body clock
-Regulation of the pituitary gland and the autonomic nervous system (ANS)
-Extensive connections with CNS |
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Term
| some structural properties that allow the hypothalamus to regulate “essential” behaviors |
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Definition
-Numerous neural centers (nuclei)
-Emotional components via medulla and limbic system |
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Term
| the most superior portion of the brain stem |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| neurons that release dopamine from their nerve terminals |
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Term
| functions of the midbrain |
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Definition
Role in motor control: linkages between cerebellum, basal ganglia, and cortex
Components of visual & auditory systems
Major pathway for control of eye movements |
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Term
| dome dopaminergic projection pathways |
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Definition
-Nigrostriatal system
-Mesolimbic system |
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Term
| the role of the Nigrostriatal system |
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Definition
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Term
| the role of the Mesolimbic system |
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Definition
| addiction/reward behaviors |
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Term
| condition in which the Nigrostriatal system likely deteriorates |
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Definition
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Term
| condition in which the Mesolimbic system is likely hyperactive |
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Definition
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Term
| why the cerebellum is called "little brain" |
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Definition
| because it contains more than HALF of all the neurons in the brain |
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Term
| some functions of the cerebellum |
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Definition
-Coordination of movement; motor learning
-Coordination of eye & head movement; control of balance
-Involvement in language & other higher cognitive functions |
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Term
| how the cerebellum is a major input center |
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Definition
| it receives information from spinal cord, cerebral cortex, inner ear |
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Term
| the 3 regions of the cerebellum |
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Definition
-Cerebellar cortex (gray matter)
-Internal white matter
-Three deep nuclei |
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Term
| general composition of the cerebellar cortex |
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Definition
-Three layers
-Five neuron types |
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Term
| the cerebellum has 5 neuron types, which among these are... |
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Definition
-Four interneurons
-Purkinje cells (a type of projection neuron) |
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Term
| how the purkinje in the cerebellum interact with the 3 deep nuclei in the cerebellum |
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Definition
| the make and release GABA to inhibit the 3 deep nuclei |
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Term
| what the layers of the cerebellar cortex look like |
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Definition
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Term
| the neurotransmitter released by Purkinje cells |
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Definition
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Term
| where the signal from Purkinje cells ultimately goes and by what means |
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Definition
| it makes its way up to the frontal lobes, the primary motor cortex, and other parts of that motor cortex, via the connections in the three deeper lying structures of the cerebellum |
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Term
| the 2 types of nuclei in the pons |
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Definition
-ventral pontine nuclei
-dorsal pontine nuclei |
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Term
| function of the ventral pontine nuclei in the pons |
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Definition
| they relay motor and somatosensory information from the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum |
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Term
| function of the diorsal pontine nuclei in the pons |
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Definition
| they are involved in respiration, sleep, and taste |
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Term
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Definition
-Ventral pontine nuclei relay motor and somatosensory information from the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum
-Dorsal nuclei are involved in respiration, sleep, and taste |
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Term
| functions of the medulla oblongata |
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Definition
-Decussation of many tracts occurs at the medulla
-“Vital center” nuclei: cardiovascular regulation
-Early relay nuclei for taste, hearing, balance, control of neck & facial muscles |
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Term
| where many of the nerve fibers do decussation (crossover) |
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Definition
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Term
| function of the "vital center” nuclei in the medulla oblongata |
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Definition
| cardiovascular regulation |
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Term
| function of the early relay nuclei in the medulla oblongata |
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Definition
| taste, hearing, balance, control of neck & facial muscles |
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Term
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Definition
-on the parasympathetic side of the autonomic nervous system
-housed within the medulla |
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Term
| the system housed in the reticular formation |
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Definition
| reticular activating system (RAS) |
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Term
| function of the reticular activating system (RAS) |
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Definition
-important for the control of our internal clock - so our sleep and wakefulness cycles
-they have lots of connections to the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the forebrain, and the cortex |
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Term
| general structure of the pons and the medulla oblongata |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| brain stem respiratory centers |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| the most inferior part of the CNS |
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Definition
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Term
| the composition of the spinal cord |
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Definition
-Central gray matter
-Surrounding white matter: funiculi
-Ascending tracts
-Descending tracts |
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Term
| composition of the central gray matter in the spinal cord |
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Definition
-Two dorsal horns
-Two ventral horns |
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Term
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Definition
| the surrounding white matter around the gray matter in the spinal cord |
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Term
| composition of ascending tracts in the spinal cord |
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Definition
| Medial lemniscal tract & lateral spinothalamic tract |
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Term
| functions of the ascending tracts in the spinal cord |
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Definition
-Bottom-up control
-Somatosensory information from periphery to CNS |
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Term
|
Definition
| bundle of secondary sensory fibers in the brainstem |
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Term
| composition of the descending tracts in the spinal cord |
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Definition
| Corticospinal tract & extrapyramidal tract |
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Term
| function of the descending tracts in the spinal cord |
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Definition
-Top-down control
-Motor output from CNS to periphery |
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Term
| the structure of the spinal cord and the direction information flows |
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Definition
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Term
| the ascending tracts in the spinal cord |
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Definition
-medial lemniscal tract
-lateral spinothalmic tract
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| axons of 3rd-order neurons |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| medial lemniscal tract (axons of 2nd-order neurons) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| fasciculus cuneatus (axons of 1st-order sensory neurons) |
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Term
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Definition
| joint stretch receptor (proprioceptor) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| lateral spinothalmic tract (axons of 2nd-order neurons) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| axons of 1st-order neurons (not part of spinothalmic tract) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| ascending tracts are about... |
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Definition
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Term
| the receptors in the medial lemniscal tract |
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Definition
-joint stretch receptor (proprioceptor)
-touch receptor
[image] |
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Term
| the receptors in the lateral spinothalmic tract |
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Definition
-pain receptor
-temperature receptor
[image] |
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Term
| where joint stretch receptors (proprioceptors) are found |
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Definition
-muscles
-tendons
-ligaments |
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Term
| where touch receptors are found |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
| where crossover occurs in the medial lemniscal tract |
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Definition
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Term
| where crossover occurs in the lateral spinothalmic tract |
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Definition
| at the level of the spinal cord |
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Term
| the role of the thalamus in ascending tracts |
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Definition
| serves as a relay center for somatosensory information |
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Term
| the 2 descending tracts in the spinal cord |
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Definition
-corticospinal tract
-extrapyramidal tract
[image] |
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Term
| descending tracts are about... |
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Definition
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Term
| where crossover occurs in the corticospinal tract |
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Definition
at the level of the medulla oblongata
[image] |
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Term
| a part of the corticospinal tract that remains ipsilateral (doesn't cross over) |
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Definition
| anterior corticospinal tract |
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Term
|
Definition
Molecular mechanism for learning & memory
LTP (long-term potentiation) |
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Term
|
Definition
| the process by which short-term memory becomes long-term memory |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| part of the brain important for learning and memory |
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Definition
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Term
| how short-term memory becomes long-term memory |
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Definition
| info flows from hippocampus to cerebral cortex |
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Term
| the qualitative categories of memory |
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Definition
|
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Term
| declarative (explicit) memory |
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Definition
-semantic, "rote" memory
-ability to remember specific things |
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Term
| nondeclarative (implicit) memory |
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Definition
-how-to do things
-anything that involves our motor system, our skeletal motor system, and an actual act, and remembering how to perform that act |
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Term
| the part of the brain involved with declarative (explicit) memory |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| the temporal categories of memory |
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Definition
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Term
| how short-term memory works |
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Definition
-happens during “early” LTP
-Seconds to hours
-Synaptic changes: no new protein synthesis; nucleus not involved
-happens by phosphorylation and dephosphorylation events |
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Term
| how long-term memory works |
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Definition
Days to years
Synaptic changes: new protein synthesis; nucleus not involved |
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Term
| some examples of ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluR's) |
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Definition
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Term
| some types of glutamate receptors |
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Definition
-ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluR's)
-metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR's) |
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Term
| 2 classes of ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluR's) involved in memory |
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Definition
-Non-NMDA-Rs
-NMDA-Rs
[image] |
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Term
| the 2 classes of Non-NMDA-Rs |
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Definition
-AMPA-R’s
-Kainate-R’s |
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Term
| some characteristics of Non-NMDA-Rs |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of NMDA-Rs |
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Definition
| -Voltage- and ligand-gated Na+/K+/Ca2+ channel
-Ca2+i as second messenger --> LTP |
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Term
| which receptors are involved in LTP? non-NMDA-Rs or NMDA-Rs? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| the voltage gate in NMDA-Rs |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| some things that have to happen before the NMDA ionotropic glutamate receptor opens up |
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Definition
| -glutamate binds to receptor
-Mg2+ gets booted out into the extracellular space
-nearby non-NMDA receptor creates a depolarization across the membrane
[image] |
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Term
| the ions that pass through non-NMDA ionotropic glutamate receptors |
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Definition
| -Na+ into the cell
-K+ out of the cell
[image] |
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Term
| the ions that pass through NMDA ionotropic glutamate receptors |
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Definition
| -Na+ into the cell
-K+ out of the cell
-Ca2+ into the cell
[image] |
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Term
| which type of ionotropic glutamate receptor provides the depolarization? NMDA or non-NMDA? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| when ions pass through the NMDA ionotropic glutamate receptors, which one activates or induces LTP? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| in normal synaptic transmission, is the NMDA-R active or inactive? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| how the glutamate, AMPA receptor, and NMDA receptor interact in a synapse to activate LTP |
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Definition
|
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Term
| what happens in early LTP? |
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Definition
| NMDA-R activation & short-term effects |
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Term
| what happens in late LTP? |
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Definition
| NMDA-R activation & new protein synthesis --> long-term effects |
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Term
| what the protein synthesized by late LTP does |
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Definition
strengthens connection between the neurons of the synapse
[image] |
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Term
| some pathways that use biogenic amines |
|
Definition
-Serotonin pathways
-Dopamine projection pathways from the midbrain |
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Term
| some functions Serotonin pathways are involved in |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Dopamine projection pathways come from... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some dopamine projection pathways from the midbrain |
|
Definition
-Mesolimbic pathway
-Nigrostriatal pathway |
|
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Term
| the Mesolimbic pathway is involved in... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the Nigrostriatal pathway is involved in... |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some subcategories of biogenic amines |
|
Definition
-catecholamines
-indoleamines |
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Term
| some examples of catecholamines |
|
Definition
-dopamine
-norepinephrine
-epinephrine |
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Term
| an example of an indoleamine |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| catecholamines are derived from... |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| indoleamines are derived from... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the enzymes in the presynaptic cell depend on... |
|
Definition
| which particular monoamine that cell releases from its nerve terminal |
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Term
| the biosynthetic pathways of catecholamines and serotonin |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| the only biogenic amine that is known to interact with a ligand-gated ion channel |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how serotonin interacts with post-synaptic amines |
|
Definition
| -interacts mostly with GPCRs; effects can be stimulatory or inhibitory
-interacts with one LGIC (5-HT3 receptor): Na+/K+ channel --> stimulatory |
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|
Term
| how dopamine interacts with post-synaptic amines |
|
Definition
-interacts only with GPCRs
-Effects can be stimulatory (D1 receptors) or inhibitory (D2 receptors) |
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| how norepinephrine & epinephrine interact with post-synaptic amines |
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Definition
| interacts only with GPCRs: alpha- and beta-receptors; effects can be stimulatory or inhibitory |
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| depiction of how catecholamines function in neurotransmission and cleft clearance |
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| break down neurotransmitters into smaller by-products that are not active neurotransmitters |
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| they implicate the subgenual region of the prefrontal cortex in regulation of mood |
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| The Biogenic Amine Hypothesis of Depression |
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Definition
| Depression might correspond with decreased activity of biogenic amine (5HT, Norepi, DA) pathways |
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| how The Biogenic Amine Hypothesis of Depression came about |
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Definition
-the drug reserpine had both depressive as well as Parkinson-like side-effects
-turns out, reserpine decreased monoaminergic signaling in the brain by inhibiting the uptake of DA, NE, 5HT into presynaptic vesicles |
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| the 1st generation of antidepressants |
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Definition
monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
[image] |
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| the 2nd generation of antidepressants |
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| the 3rd generation of antidepressants |
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Definition
selective serotonin reuptake blockers (SSRIs)
[image] |
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| monoamine oxidase inhibitors |
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| selective serotonin reuptake blockers |
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| how the 1st generation of antidepressants works |
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Definition
by inhibiting monoamine oxidase (MAO)
[image] |
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| how the 2nd generation of antidepressants works |
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Definition
by inhibiting the reuptake of norepinephrine
[image] |
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| how the 3rd generation of antidepressants works |
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Definition
by inhibiting reuptake of serotonin
[image]
kinda like the mechanism for inhibiting the reuptake of norepinephrine, but instead inhibits reuptake of serotonin |
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Term
| why the 1st and 2nd generations of antidepressants are prone to have side effects |
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Definition
| because they influence various circuits and networks that they're not intended to affect |
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Term
| some neurotransmitters involved in mood |
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Definition
-serotonin
-norepinephrine
-dopamine |
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| vesicular amine transporter |
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| what many antidepressants inhibit |
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Definition
monoamine reuptake transporters
[image] |
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| the pathway that degenerates in Parkinson's disease |
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Definition
| the Nigrostriatal pathway |
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Term
| some details of the Nigrostriatal pathway |
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Definition
-DA nuclei in substantia nigra of midbrain project to putamen of basal ganglia
-Important for motor control
-Compromised in Parkinson’s disease
-L-DOPA can have schizophrenia-like side effects |
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| medication often used to treat Parkinson's disease |
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Definition
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| schizophrenia-like side effects |
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| L-DOPA can have schizophrenia-like side effects because... |
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Definition
| it influences many other circuits and pathways, including the mesolimbic pathway |
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| some details about the Mesolimbic pathway |
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Definition
-DA nuclei in ventral tegmental area of midbrain project to nucleus accumbens (of basal ganglia) and prefrontal cortex
-Important in reward behavior & emotion
-Overactivity in Schizophrenia
-D2 antagonists can have Parkinson-like side effects |
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Definition
| structure within the midbrain where dopaminergic nuclei in the nigrostriatal pathway are housed |
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| depiction of where the mesolimbic dopamine system and the negrostriatal dopamine system are located in the brain |
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Definition
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| structure within the midbrain where dopaminergic nuclei in the mesolimbic pathway are housed |
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| medication often given to schizophrenia patients |
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Definition
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| side-effect of D2 antagonist |
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Definition
| Parkinson-like side effects |
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| why D2 has Parkinson-like side effects |
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Definition
| because it affects many dopaminergic pathways, such as the nigrostriatic pathway |
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Term
| part of the ventral striatum |
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Definition
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| components of the basal ganglia |
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Definition
-Corpus striatum
-Globus pallidus
-Substantia nigra
-Subthalamic nucleus |
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| components of the corpus striatum |
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Definition
-Caudate nucleus
-Putamen
-Ventral striatum |
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| mesolimbic dopamine system |
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| nigrostriatal dopamine system |
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basically the major output center of the basal ganglia
[image] |
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Definition
| part of the basal ganglia that is in the midbrain |
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Term
| the components of the basal ganglia proper |
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Definition
-corpus striatum
-globulus pallidus |
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Term
| The basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical motor circuit |
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Definition
| A complex motor control circuit that exists between the cortex, thalamus, and basal ganglia |
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Term
| some details about the basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical motor circuit |
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Definition
-Stimulatory input from cortex to putamen
-Inhibitory output from globus pallidus to thalamus
-Tonic stimulation of motor cortex via thalamus |
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Term
| depiction of the basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical motor circuit |
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Definition
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| the sequence that causes Parkinsin's disease |
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Definition
1: dopaminergic input from the substantia nigra (midbrain) to the corpus striatum (basal ganglia) deteriorates
2: increased inhibitory output from globus pallidus to thalamus
3: decreased excitatory input from thalamus to cortex
4: hypokinetic disorder (hallmark of Parkinson's disease) |
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what's number 10a?
[image] |
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what's number 10b?
[image] |
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| glutamate neurotransmitter (excitatory) |
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| dopamine neurotransmitter (excitatory) |
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