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Chapter 8: Language and Thought
AP Psych-Wayne Weiten sixth edition
57
Psychology
12th Grade
11/05/2009

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Cards

Term
cognition
Definition

refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge

thinking

 

Term
introspection
Definition
analysis of one's own conscious experience
Term
cognitive psychologists
Definition
investigate complexity of languege, problem solving, decision making, and reasoning
Term
languege (definition)
Definition
consists of sumbols that convey meaning, plus rules for combining those symbols, that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages
Term
six elements of language
Definition

speech

arbitrary association

naming/sematics

generativeness

expressive power

structure or syntax

Term
language is symbolic
Definition

spoken sounds and written words to represent objects, actions, events, and ideas

allow to discuss events from different times

variety

Term
language is semantic
Definition

meaningful

arbitrary association: look of word and representative concept (humming bird) the spelling of humming bird does not look like an actual humming bird

Term
language is generative
Definition

limited number of symbols can be combined in an infinite variety of ways to generate an endless array of messages

combination of limited symbols=unlimited combinations

Term
language is structured
Definition

although people can make infinite variety of sentances, there are a limited number of ways to structure

hierarchy structure of languege

Term
language has expressive power
Definition

degree or mood, size or extreme (loud, din)

 

Term
language has denotation/connotation
Definition

dictionary meaning

implied meaning how it is said

Term
phonemes
Definition

smallest speech units in a language that can be distinguished perceptually

basic sounds- humans have about 100

languages use between 20 and 80 of these

english language has about 40

letters can have multiple phoneme

Term
morphemes
Definition

smallest units of meaning in a language

50,000 english morphemes

(includes roots, prefixes, and suffixes)

un-friend-ly

Term
semantics
Definition

area of language concerned with understanding the meaning of word combinations

need to learn dictionary definition and connotative which includes emotional and secondary implications

Term
syntax
Definition

system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentances

i.e. need both a verb and noun in a sentance

Term
fast mapping
Definition
process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure
Term
overextension
Definition

occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to

ball ends up being all round objects

all four legged animals called dog

Term
underextension
Definition

occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe to a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to

use the word rock to refer to only one specific rock

uses doll to refer to only one doll

Term
telegraphic speech
Definition

consits of mainly content words, articles, prepositions, and other less critical words are omitted

give doll instead of please give me the doll

Term
mean length of utterance (MLU)
Definition
average length of youngsters spoken statements (measured in morphemes)
Term
overregularizations
Definition

occur when grammatical rules are incorrectly generalized to irregular cases where they do not apply

the girl goed home

i hitted the ball

Term
metalinguistic awareness
Definition

ability to reflect on the use of language

puns and jokes

Term
billingualism
Definition
is the acquisition of two languages that use different speech sounds, vocabulary, and grammatical rules
Term
behaviorist theory on languege acquisition
Definition

Skinner- children learn languege like everything else by imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning

by controlling reinforcement, parents have influence to encourage their children to learn languege correctly

Term
nativist theory on languege
Definition

Noam Chomsky

infinite sentances in languege-unreasonable to learn by imitation

parents respond more to factual information than grammatical

nature

Term
LAD language acquisition device
Definition
innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of languege
Term
Linguistic Relativity
Definition
the hypothesis that one's languege determines the nature of one's thought
Term
problem solving
Definition
refers to active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable
Term
3 types of problems
Definition

problems of inducing structure--find relation among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas

problems of arrangement--arrange parts of a problem in a way that satisfies some criterion

problems of transformation require people to carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal

Term
insight
Definition
the sudden discovery of correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on trial and error
Term
barriers to problem solving
Definition

irrelevant info

funtional fixedness

mental set

unnecessary constraints

Term
irrelevent information
Definition

stuff ya dont need to solve the problem that leads you astray

wrong to assume that all numerical info is needed

15% of people in Topeka have unlisted phone numbers. You select 200 people at random from the phone book. How many of these people can be expected to be unlisted.

 

 

none

Term
functional fixedness
Definition

tendency to percieve an item only in terms of its most common use

scissors with the string on ceiling

younger children are more creative

Term
mental set
Definition

exists when people persist in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past

look past simpler solutions instead to try more complex ways that have worked in the past

stuck in a rut

Term
approaches to problem solving
Definition
using algorithms and Heuristics
Term
problem space
Definition
refer to the set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem solver
Term
trial and error
Definition
trying possible solutions and discarding those that are in error until one works
Term
algorithm
Definition

methodical, step by step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searcing for a solution to a problem

solve the anagram IHCRA-write out all possible combinations until you discovered CHAIR

Term
Heuristic
Definition

guiding principle or "rule of thumb" used in solving problems or making decisions

 forming subgoals

working background

searching for analogies

changing the representation of the problem

Term
Heuristics-forming subgoals
Definition
matchstick problem[image]
Term
Heuristics-working backword
Definition

take the end result and just work backwords

word problems--pond problem

Term
Heuristics-searching for analogies
Definition

need to recognize similarity

A teacher had 23 pupils in his class. All but 7 of them went on a musuem trip and thus were away for the day. How many students remained in class that day?

7

Term
Heuristics-change representation of the problem
Definition

verbally, mathematically, spatially

use a list, a table, an equation, a graph, a matrix of facts or numbers, a hierarchical tree diagram, or a sequential flowchart

Term
field dependence-independence
Definition

refers to individuals' tendency to rely primarily on external versus internal frames of refernce when orienting themselves in space

Easterners see wholes--Westerners see parts

Term
field dependent
Definition

rely on external frames of reference and tend to accept the physical environment as a given instead of trying to analyze or restructure it

focus on whole

look at whole problem

agricultural

 Holistic cognitive style--Easterner

Term
field independent
Definition

rely on internal frames of reference and tend to analyze and try to restructure the physical environment rather than accept it as it is

focus on specific parts or components

autonomy

hunter gathering society

Analytic cognitive style-- Westerner

Term
decision making
Definition
involves evaluating alternatives and making choices among them
Term
theory of bounded rationality
Definition
assets that people tend use simple strategies in decision making that focus making that focus on only a few facets of availible options and oftern results in "irrational" decisions that are less than optimal
Term
Decision making:additive strategy
Definition

list the attributes that influence his decision

then rate their desirability of each choice on each attribute

also add weight to certain attributes

 

Term
elimination by aspects
Definition
when a choice fails to satisfy some minimum criterium for an attribute or aspect in turn
Term
risky decision making
Definition
involves making choices under conditions of uncertainty
Term
avaliability heuristic
Definition

involves basing the estimated probabilitu of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind

thinking of how common divorce is by thinking of how many divorces you can recall

Term
representative heuristics
Definition

involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event

which is more likely when flipping a coin:

T T T T T T

or

H T T H T H

 

 

Many people think the second is more likely. While

in reality both are equally likely

Term
tendency to ignore base rates
Definition

Steve is shy, withdrawn, little interest in people, needs things in order

salesperson or librarian?

 

 

 

 

while you may guess librarian because of he resembles a librarian.

This is not a wise guess because it ignores the statistics.

salespeople outnumber librarians 75 to 1 in the US

people think stats apply to them---smokers, car accidents etc

Term
conjunction fallacy
Definition

occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone

 

subcategories cannot have higher statistics than the broader category

Term
alternative outcomes effect
Definition

occurs when people's belief about whether an outcome will occur changes depending on how alternative outcomes are distributed, even though the summed probability of the alternative outcomes is held constant

chances of hurricane hitting s. carolina 70%

chance of hurricane hitting sunbury 27%

people mistake that s carolina will have a higher chance of being hit by the hurricane when sunbury is has less area than all of s. carolina

Term
fast and frugal heuristics
Definition

not enough time or resources to gather all the information

quick judgement

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