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Definition
a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior behavior due to experience.
Types of learning:
1. Classical conditioning
2. Operant conditioning
3. Observational learning |
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learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
i.e. Seals: clap and bark to get food. |
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| a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. |
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the view that psychology 1) should be an objective science that 2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
- Pavlov's work laid the foundation for John B. Watson's behaviorism movement. |
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| in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response conditioning. |
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| Unconditioned stimulus (US) |
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Definition
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response.
i.e. The food. |
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| Conditioned response (CR) |
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Definition
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
i.e. Learned response: salivation. |
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| Conditioned stimulus (CS) |
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Definition
in classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.
i.e. Tone stimulus that triggers the conditional salivation. |
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| in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. |
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| Higher-order conditioning |
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Definition
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.
i.e. an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning). |
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the diminishing of a conditioned response.
• Classical conditioning: when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS).
• Operant conditioning: when a response is no longer reinforced. |
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| the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response → extinction suppresses the CR rather than eliminate it. |
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the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
i.e. Toddlers taught to fear moving cars also become afraid of moving trucks. |
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| in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli. |
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behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
(i.e. salivating to the tone) |
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| a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher --> We learn to associate a response and its consequence. |
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| E.L. Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely. |
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| in operant conditioning research, a chamber (AKA a Skinner box) containing a bar or key than an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. |
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| an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. |
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in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
• A reinforcer can be a tangible reward, it may be praise/attention, or it may be an activity. |
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| increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthen the response. |
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| increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT IS NOT PUNISHMENT). |
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Definition
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
i.e. Getting food when hungry. |
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| a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer. |
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| reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. |
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| Partial (intermittent) reinforcement |
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Definition
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
i.e. Gamblers. |
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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
i.e. Coffee shops's loyalty cards --> free drink after 10 purchases. |
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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
i.e. Slot-machine players.
• Produces high raters of responding, because reinforcers increase as the number of responses increase. |
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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
i.e. checking more frequently as the time to watch the Bachelor approaches. |
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| Variable-interval schedule |
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Definition
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
• Slow responses because there is no knowing when the waiting will be over. |
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| a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. |
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| learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. |
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| learning by observing others. |
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| the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. |
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frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.
• Our brain’s mirror neurons underlie our intensely social nature. |
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| positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. |
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| How do we learn, according to John Locke and Aristotle? |
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| We learn by association and these learned associations feed our habitual behaviors, because the behaviors become associated with the context, our next experience of the context triggers our habitual response. |
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| the process of learning associations. |
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| He discovered that dogs learned to associate the ringing of a bell or buzzer, even a light, to receiving food, so by merely hearing the bell/buzzer or seeing the light, they begin to salivate. |
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| Unconditioned response (UR) |
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Definition
in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US).
i.e. Salivation in response to food in the mouth. |
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| Pavlov's five major conditioning process |
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Definition
1. Spontaneous recovery
2. Acquisition
3. Generalization
4. Extinction
5. Discrimination |
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| How is classical conditioning biologically adaptive? |
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Definition
It helps humans and other animals prepare for good/bad events. Conditioning helps an animal survive and reproduce by responding to cues that help it avoid dangers and produce offsprings.
i.e. Male quail + light, sexy female quail comes out --> Male quail associates light with sexy female quail = sexually aroused male quails at the mere sight of the light. |
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| Pavlov and Watson believed that the laws of learnings were essentially similar in all animals, but what did Gregory Kimble discover that disproves that? |
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Definition
| Kimble realized that an animal's capacity for conditioning is constrained by its biology; meaning, that each species is predisposed to learn associations that enhance its survive/adapt → natural selection favors traits that aid survival. |
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| Scientists give rats food with a specific flavor which makes them sick several hours later, which they then avoided from then on, this experiment disproved what notion? |
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| This appeared to violate the notion that for conditioning to occur, the unconditioned stimulus MUST immediately follow the conditioned stimulus. |
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| The sick rats developed an aversion to certain tastes, but not to sights or sounds, what notion did this result contradict? |
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Definition
| This contradicted the behaviorists' idea that any perceivable stimulus could serve as a conditioned stimuli. |
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| How does learning aid organisms? |
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| Learning enables organisms to adapt to their environment and increases their chance of survival. |
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Definition
1. Classical conditioning is one way virtually all organisms learn to adapt.
2. Learning can be studied objectively. |
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John Watson's experiment: He made a small child afraid of a white rat by also creating an extremely loud sound every time the rat was introduced.
• Conclusion: Human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses. |
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| What is the key difference between classical and operant conditioning? |
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| Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli, whereas in operant conditioning, the organism associates their OWN actions with consequences. |
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| Successive approximations |
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Definition
| In operant conditioning, you reward responses that are ever-closer to the final desired behavior, while ignoring all other responses. |
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Term
| What if the rat presses the bar in the Skinner box while you are distracted, and you delay the reinforcer? |
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Definition
| If the delay lasts longer than 30 seconds, the rat will not learn to press the bar, instead you will be reinforcing other incidental behaviors (sniffing and moving), which intervened after the bar press. |
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| What are the upsides and downsides of continuous reinforcement? |
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Definition
| Learning occurs rapidly with continuous reinforcement, but extinction occurs rapidly when reinforcement stops, the behavior soon stops too. |
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Term
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Definition
any consequence that DECREASES the frequency of a preceding behavior.
PUNISHMENT TELL YOU WHAT NOT TO DO, BUT REINFORCEMENT TELLS YOU WHAT TO DO. |
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Definition
ADMINISTER an aversive stimulus.
i.e. spanking; receiving a parking ticket. |
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WITHDRAW a desirable stimulus.
i.e. time-out from privileges; revoked driver's license. |
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| What are the drawbacks of physically punishing children? |
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Definition
1. Behavior is suppressed, not forgotten.
2. Teaches discrimination (not what you think it means).
3. Teaches fear.
4. Increases aggressiveness by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems. |
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| When does operant conditioning work best? |
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Definition
| When it builds on an animal's natural behavior tendencies. |
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| What is the basic rule of shaping? |
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Definition
| Notice people doing something right and affirm then for it! |
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| Classical vs. Operant: Response |
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Definition
1. Classical: Involuntary, automatic.
2. Voluntary, operates on environment. |
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| Classical vs. Operant: Acquisition |
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Definition
1. Classical: associating events: Neutral stimulus is paired with unconditioned stimulus, which becomes a conditioned stimulus.
2. Operant: associating response with consequence (reinforcer or punisher). |
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| Classical vs. Operant: Extinction |
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Definition
1. Classical: Conditioned response decreases when conditioned stimulus is presented alone.
2. Operant: Responding decreases when reinforcement stops. |
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| Classical vs. Operant: Spontaneous Recovery |
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Definition
1. Classical: The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response.
2. Operant: Same thing as classical. |
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| Classical vs. Operant: Generalization |
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Definition
1. Classical: the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.
2. Operant: same. |
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| Classical vs. Operant: Discrimination |
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Definition
1. Classical: the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and irrelevant stimuli.
2. Operant: Organisms learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced. |
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| Classical vs. Operant: Cognitive Processes |
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Definition
1. Classical: Organisms develop expectations that the conditioned stimulus signals the arrival of unconditioned stimulus.
2. Operant: Organisms develop expectation that a response will be reinforced/punished; they also exhibit latent learning without reinforcement. |
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| Classical vs. Operant: Biological Predispositions |
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Definition
1. Classical: Natural predispositions constrain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated.
2. Operant: Organisms best learn behaviors similar to their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors instinctively drift back toward natural ones. |
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| What do we learn by watching others? |
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Definition
| We learn to anticipate a behavior's consequences → we are likely to model those we perceive to ourselves, are successful, or admirable. |
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| Prosocial Observation Learning |
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Definition
| Models that are helpful and positive; models are most effective when their actions and words are consistent. |
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| Antisocial Observation Learning |
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| Observational learning may have antisocial effect, which helps us understand why abusive parents might have aggressive children. |
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| What is a powerful source of observational learning? |
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Violence viewing leads to violent behavior: correlation NOT causation.
1. Children imitate what they see on TV.
2. Prolonged exposure desensitizes viewers. |
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| Bobo Doll Experiment: Children watched a video of a women beating up a Bobo doll and then were placed into a room filled with toys, including a Bobo doll. The children then preceded to imitate the behavior depicted on the video, their behavior changed without it being rewarded or punished. |
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| a certain number of correct responses. |
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| the amount of time that has gone by. |
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