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| a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience |
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| learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). |
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| a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events |
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| in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth |
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| in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response |
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| in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) |
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| in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response |
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| in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response |
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| higher-order conditioning |
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| a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) |
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| the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced |
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| the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response |
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| the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses |
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| in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus |
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| our biology prepares us to learn _______ aversions to toxic foods. |
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| If you become violently ill four hours after eating contaminated mussels, you will probably develop an aversion to the ______ of mussels but not to the sight of the associated restaurant, its plates, the people you were with, or the music you heard there. |
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| birds, which hunt by sight, appear biologically primed to develop aversions to the _______ of tainted food |
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| behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus |
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| a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher |
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| behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences |
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| Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely |
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| in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking |
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| an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior |
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| in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows |
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| increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. |
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| increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. |
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| __________ is not punishment |
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| an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need |
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| a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer |
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| reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs |
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| partial (intermittent) reinforcement |
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| reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. |
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| reinforce behavior after a set number of responses. Just as coffee shops reward us with a free drink after every 10 purchased, laboratory animals may be reinforced on a fixed ratio of, say, one reinforcer for every 30 responses. Once conditioned, the animal will pause only briefly after a reinforcer and will then return to a high rate of responding |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed |
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| variable-interval schedule |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals |
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| an event that decreases the behavior that it follows |
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| a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it |
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| learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. |
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| a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake |
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| a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment |
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| learning by observing others |
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| the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior |
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| frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy |
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| positive, constructive, helpful behavior. |
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