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Definition
| The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our enviroment. |
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| the process of organizing and interpreting sensory info, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. |
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| analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information |
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| info processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations |
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| the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them |
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| the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time |
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| a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue. |
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| below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness |
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| the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response |
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| the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd) |
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| the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant mininmum percentage (rather than a constant amount) |
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| diminshed sensitivity as a consequence of constant simulation |
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| conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret. |
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| the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission. |
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| the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth |
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| the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude |
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| the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters. |
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| a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening |
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| the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina |
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| the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual info |
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| the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina |
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| retinal receptors that detect black, white and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond |
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| retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. |
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| the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain |
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| the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there |
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| the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster. |
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| nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement |
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| the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of info processsing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. |
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| Young- Helmholtz Trichromatic (3-color) Theory |
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Definition
| the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors- one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue- which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color |
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Definition
| the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green |
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Definition
| the sense or act of hearing |
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| the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second) |
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| a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency |
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| the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing 3 tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window |
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Definition
| a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses |
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| the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs |
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| in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated |
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| in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch |
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Definition
| hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea |
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| Sensorineural Hearing Loss |
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Definition
| hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness |
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| a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea |
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| the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts |
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| the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance |
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| the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by info coming from the brain |
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| the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste |
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| an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of info into meaningful wholes |
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| the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground) |
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| the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups |
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| the abilitiy to see objects in 3 dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two- dimensional; allows us to judge distance |
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| a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals |
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| depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes |
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| a binocular cue for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas inthe 2 eyes, the brain computes distance- the greater the disparity (difference) between the 2 images, the closer the object |
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| depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone |
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| an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession |
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| perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change. |
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| perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object |
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| in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field |
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| a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another |
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| a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical enviroments can be made safe and easy to use |
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| Extrasensory Perception (ESP) |
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| the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance and precognition |
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| the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis |
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| a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience |
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| learning that certain events occur together. The events may be 2 stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning) |
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| a type of learning in which one learns to link 2 or more stimuli and anticipate events |
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| the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psyschologists today agree with (1) but not with (2) |
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| Unconditioned Response (UR) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occuring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth |
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| Unconditioned Stimulus (US) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers a response |
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| Conditioned Response (CR) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) |
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| Conditioned Stimulus (CS) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, an originally irrevelant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response |
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| Higher- Order Conditioning |
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Definition
| a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone |
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Definition
| the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced |
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| the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response |
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| the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses |
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| in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus |
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| behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus |
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| a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher |
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| behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences |
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| Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. |
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| in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking |
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Definition
| an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior |
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| in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows |
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| increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response |
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Definition
| increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response (not a punishment) |
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| an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need |
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| a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer |
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| reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs |
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| Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement |
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Definition
| reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses |
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Definition
| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses |
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Definition
| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed |
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| Variable- Interval Schedule |
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Definition
| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals |
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| an event that decreases the behavior that it follows |
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| a mental representation of the layout of one's enviroment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it |
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| learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it |
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| a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake |
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| a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment |
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| learning by observing others |
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| the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior |
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| frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy |
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| positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. |
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| the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of info |
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| the processing of info into the memory system- for example, by extracting meaning |
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| the retention of encoded info over time |
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| the process of getting info out of memory storage |
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| the immediate, very brief recording of sensory info in the memory system |
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| activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the 7 digits of a phone number while dialing, before the info is stored or forgotten |
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| the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences |
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| a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial info, and of info retrieved from long-term memory |
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| unconscious encoding of incidental info, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned info, such as word meanings |
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| encoding that requires attention and conscious effort |
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| that conscious repetition of info, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage |
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| the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice |
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| our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list |
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| the encoding of picture images |
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| the encoding of sound, esp the sound of words |
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| the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words |
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| mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, esp when combined with semantic encoding |
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| memory aids, esp those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices |
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| organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically |
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| a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second |
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Definition
| a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds |
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| Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) |
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Definition
| an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory |
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| a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event |
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| retention independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory) |
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| memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (also called declarative memory) |
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| a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage |
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| a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test |
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| a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test |
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| a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time |
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| the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory |
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| that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before". Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience |
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| the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood |
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| the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new info |
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| the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old info |
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| in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories |
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| incorporating misleading info into one's memory of an event |
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| attributing to the wrong source an event we have experinced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories |
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