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Definition
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span; "womb to tomb".
Focus their work:
1. Nature vs. Nurture → determine which weight more heavily, but focusing on one during a study.
2. Continuity vs. Stages → whether change is continuous (escalator) or it happens in stages (rungs of a ladder).
3. Stability vs. Change → what things of a person stay stable and what things change (and why). |
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| the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo → the zygote attaches to the mother's uterine wall. |
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| the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month (2nd - 8th week) → the zygote's inner cells become the embryo. |
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| the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. |
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| agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. |
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| Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) |
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Definition
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavily drinking. In severe cases, symptom include noticeable facial disproportion.
• They tend to be born premature, underweight, have a lot of learning disabilities, and their intellectual ability is never really advances.
• Fetal Alcohol Effects. |
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biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.
o crawl → stand → walk → run |
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| all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. |
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| a framework that organizes and interprets information. |
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| when we take in new information and make it fit into our existing schemas. |
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| adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information; building new framework for new information. |
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in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.
Development Phenomena:
1. Object permanence
2. Stranger anxiety |
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| the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived. |
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in Piaget's theory (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years old) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic → children use intuition rather than logical reasoning.
Development Phenomena:
1. Prentend play
2. Egocentrism
3. Theory of mind |
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| the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects. |
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| in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view, they believe that their view of the world is everybody's view of the world. |
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people's ideas about their own and others; mental states -- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.
• Children begin to tease, empathize, and persuade. |
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| Concrete operational stage |
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Definition
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 12 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.
Development phenomena:
1. Conservation
2. Mathematical transformation |
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Definition
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12 to adulthood) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.
Development phenomena:
1. Abstract logic
2. Potential for mature moral reasoning |
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| the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age. |
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an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.
• This attachment bond is a powerful survival impulse that keeps infants close to their caregiver. |
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| an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development. |
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| the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. |
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| according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers. |
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the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.
• A time of diminishing parental influence and growing peer influence.
• In the Western world adolescence roughly corresponds to the teen years.
→ Other societies, bestowed adult responsibilities shortly after sexual maturity. |
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the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.
• Puberty follows a surge of hormones, which may intensify moods and which triggers a two-year period of rapid physical development. |
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| Primary sex characteristics |
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Definition
| the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible. |
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| Secondary sex characteristics |
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| nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair. |
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| the first menstrual period. |
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| our sense of self, according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles. |
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the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships.
• An identity that forms around distinctiveness. |
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| in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood. |
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| for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood. "not-yet-settled phase of life) |
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| the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines. |
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| Crystallized intelligence |
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| our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to INCREASE with age. |
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| our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to DECREASE during late adulthood. |
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| the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. |
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| spotting during pregnancy |
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| the tendency for the baby to open their mouths and turn towards the cheek that is touched, they are searching for a source of nutrition (nipple). |
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1. Infancy: newborn - 1
2. Childhood: 1 (walking) - teenager (puberty, 12 or 13)
3. Adolescence: Teenager - adult
4. Adulthood: the social achievement at being an independent adult, different in every culture. |
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Definition
Swiss psychology, who was asked by France to develop an intelligence test for children, and in doing this, he realized that kids in a certain age would answer questions wrongly in the same way.
• His studies led him to believe that of a child's mind develops through a series of STAGES. |
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| (9 or 10 months): they can now tell the difference between familiar people and unfamiliar people, they have formed schemas for familiar faces. |
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| they understand that you can reverse an operation and return to the original that you started with. |
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Well, make a little dance, make a little love, basically, get down tonight.
1. A woman's ovary releases a mature egg and deposited sperm begin their race upstream.
2. The relatively few reaching the egg release digestive enzymes that eat away its protective coating.
3. The egg's surface blocks out others sperms once one of them penetrates the surface.
4. The egg nucleus and the sperm nucleus fuse. |
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| forms as the zygote's outer cells attach to the uterine wall, transfers nutrients and oxygen from mother to fetus. |
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| What occurs days after birth? |
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| Our brain's neural networks were stamped with the smell of our mother's body. |
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• The frontal lobes, which enable rational planning (age 3 to 6).
• The association areas are the last cortical areas to develop.
• Fiber path ways proliferate into puberty, after which the pruning process shuts down excess connections and strengthens others. |
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| Our earliest memories seldom predate our third birthday, although we consciously recall little from before age 4, our memory was processing info during those early years. |
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Harry Harlow and Margaret Harlow bred monkeys for their learning studies, they separated the infant monkeys from their mother and raised them in cages, which included a cheesecloth baby blanket.
• When their blankets were taken to be laundered, the monkeys became distressed → this intense attachment to the blanket contradicted the idea that attachment derives from an association with nourishment. |
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| Familiarity forms during a critical period - an optimal period when certain events must take place to facilitate proper development. |
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Definition
• Secure attachment: in their mother's presence they play comfortably, happily exploring their new environment → fostered by sensitive, responsive mothers.
• Insecure attachment: children are less likely to explore their surroundings, they cling to their mothers → fostered by insensitive, unresponsive mothers. |
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| Deprivation of attachment |
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Definition
Babies reared in institutions without the stimulation and attention of a regular caregiver, or locked away at home under conditions of abuse or extreme neglect, are often withdrawn.
• Extreme early trauma effects the brain → sluggish serotonin response. |
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| How do behavior and emotion arise? |
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| Behavior and emotion arise from a particular environment interacting with particular genes. |
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Term
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Definition
1. Authoritarian: impose rules and expect obedience (dictator).
2. Permissive: submit to their children's desires, make few demands, and use little punishment.
3. Authoritative: both demanding and responsive; exert control by setting rules and enforcing them, but they explain the reasons for rules (democratic). |
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Definition
1. Critical Period
2. Imprinting |
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| What does research indicate about children with authoritative parents? |
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| They have the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, and social competence. |
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| What does research indicate about children with authoritarian permissive parents? |
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| They tend to have less social skill and self-esteem; they tend to be more aggressive and immature. |
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| psychologists began to look at how maturation and experience shape us only in infancy and childhood, but also in adolescence and beyond. |
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| How do heredity and environment interact? |
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Definition
| How people react to our genetically influenced physical development. |
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| What occurs when teenagers become capable of thinking of other people's thinking? |
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| They begin to imagine what other people are thinking about them. |
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| Two crucial tasks of childhood and adolescence? |
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1. Discerning right from wrong.
2. Developing character. |
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| Lawrence Kohlberg's moral reasoning |
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The thinking that occurs as we consider right and wrong.
1. Preconventional morality
2. Conventional morality
3. Postconventional morality |
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| Before age 9, most children's morality focuses on self-interest: they obey rules either to avoid punishment or to gain concrete rewards. |
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| By early adolescence, morality focuses on caring for others and on upholding laws and social rules, simply because they are the laws and rules. |
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| Postconventional morality |
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| the abstract reasoning of formal operational; actions are judged "right" because they flow from people's rights or from self-defined, basic ethical principles. |
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| Why do psychologists critic Kohlberg's theory? |
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Definition
| The theory is biased against the moral reasoning of members of collectivist societies such as China and India, plus people's thinking engages emotions and moral feelings, which don't fit into Kohlberg's stages. |
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Definition
| To delay gratifications enable bigger rewards later. |
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| Erik Erikson's Social Development: Trust vs. Mistrust |
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Definition
| (Infancy - 1 year) → If needs are dependably met, infants develop sense of basic trust. |
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| Erik Erikson's SD: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt |
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| (Toddlerhood: 1 - 3 years) → Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities. |
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| Erik Erikson's SD: Initiative vs. Guilt |
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| (Preschool: 3 - 6 years) → Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent. |
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| Erik Erikson's SD: Industry vs. Inferiority |
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| (Elementary school: 6 years - Puberty) → Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior. |
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| Erik Erikson's SD: Identity vs. Role Confusion |
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Definition
| (Adolescence: Teen years - 20s) → Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are. |
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| Erik Erikson's SD: Intimacy vs. Isolation |
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Definition
| (Young adulthood: 20s - early 30s) → Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated. |
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| Erik Erikson's SD: Generativity vs. Stagnation |
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Definition
| (Middle adulthood: 30s - 60s) → In middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually though family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose. |
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| Erik Erikson's SD: Integrity vs. Despair |
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Definition
| (Late adulthood: Late 60s - Up) → Reflecting on his or her life, an older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure. |
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| What did William Damon contend was a key task of adolescent? |
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Definition
| To achieve a purpose - a desire to accomplish something personally meaningful that makes a difference to the world beyond oneself. |
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| Parent and Peer Relationships |
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Definition
| • Western cultures: as adolescents seek to form their own identities, they behind to pull away from their parents. |
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| Physical Changes in Middle Adulthood |
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Definition
• Women: menopause.
• Men: Gradual decline in sperm count, testosterone level, and speed of erection and ejaculation. |
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| Physical Changes in Later Life |
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Definition
• Sensory Abilities: Visual sharpness diminishes, and distance perception and adaptation to changes in light level are less acute.
• Health: The body's disease-fighting immune system weakens, but people over 65 suffer fewer short-term ailments; brain regions begin to atrophy during aging.
→ Active older adults tend to be mentally quick older adults, because exercise promotes neurogenesis. |
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| Cognitive decline accelerates in the last 3 or 4 years of life. |
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| As people enter their forties, some psychologists argued that it can be a crisis, a time of struggle, regret, or even feeling struck down by life. |
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| What are the two basic aspects of our lives that are dominate adulthood, according to Erik Erikson? |
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Definition
1. Intimacy - forming close relationships.
2. Generativity - being productive and supporting future generations. |
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Definition
1. Love: Those who cohabit before marriage have had higher rates of divorce and marital dysfunction.
2. Work: happiness is about having work that fits your interests and provides you with a sense of competence and accomplishment. |
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| How does well-being change after midlife? |
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| Positive feelings grow and negative feelings subside. |
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| a feeling that one's life has been meaningful and worthwhile. |
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