Term
| Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) |
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Definition
| a molecule that combines with inorganic phosphate to form ATP |
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| Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) |
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Definition
| the high-energy phosphate compound synthesized and used by cells to release energy for cellular work |
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Definition
| in the presence of oxygen |
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| enzyme capable of breaking down ATP to ADP + Pi + energy |
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| term used to describe the metabolic pathway involving muscle stores of ATP and the use of phosphocreatine to rephosphorylate ADP. This pathway is used at the onset of exercise and during short term, high intensity work. |
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Definition
| breakdown of free faty acids to form acetyl-CoA |
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| the chemical processes involved with the production of cellular ATP |
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| the lipid-bilayer envelope that enclose cells. Called the sarcolemma in muscle cells |
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| the mechanism to explain the aerobic formation of ATP in mitochondria |
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| the linking of energy-liberating chemical reactions to 'drive' energy-requiring reactions. |
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| the contents of the cell surrounding the nucleus. Called sarcoplasm in muscle cell |
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Definition
| a series of cytochromes in the mitochondria that are responsible for oxidative phophorylation |
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Definition
| energy requiring reaction |
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Definition
| energy required to initiate a chemical reaction |
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Definition
| proteins that play a major role in the regulation of metabolic pathways in the cell. They do not cause a reaction to occur, they simply regulate the rate or speed at which the raction takes place |
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Definition
| chemical reactions that release energy |
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Definition
| flavin adenine inucleotide. Serves as an electron carrier in bioenergetics |
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Definition
| a simple sugar that is transported via the blood and metabolized by tissues |
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Definition
| a glucose polymer synthesized in cells as a as a means of storing carbohydrate |
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| the breakdown of glycogen into glucose |
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| a metabolic pathway in the cytoplasm of the cell that results in the degradation of glucose into pyruvate or lactate |
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| relating to substances that do not contain carbon |
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Definition
| a stimulator of cellular metabolism; split off, along with ADP, from ATP when energy is released; used with ADP to form ATP in the electron transport chain |
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Definition
| rate-limiting enzyme in the Krebs cycle that is inhibited by ATP and stimulated by ADP and Pi |
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Definition
| metabolic pathway in the mitochondria in which energy is transferred from carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids to NAD for subsequent production of ATP in the electron transport chain |
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Definition
| an end product of glucose metabolism in the glycolytic pathway; formed in conditions of inadequate oxygen and in muscle fibers with few mitochondria |
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Definition
| the subcellular organelle responsible for the production of ATP with oxygen; contains the enzymes for the Krebs cycle, electron transport chain, and the fatty acid cycle |
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| branch of biochemistry involved with the study of gene structure and function |
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| coenzyme that transfers hydrogen and the energy associated with those hydrogens; in the Krebs cycle, NAD transfers energy from substrates to the electron transport chain |
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| membrane-bound organelle containing most of the cell's DNA |
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| describes substances that contain carbon |
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Term
| oxidative phosphorylation |
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Definition
| mitochondrial process in which inorganic phosphate (Pi) is coupled to ADP as energy is transferred along the electron transport chain in which oxygen is the final electron acceptor |
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Term
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Definition
the process of removing an electron from an atom or molecule
Term is derived from the fact that oxygen tends to accept electrons therefore acts as an oxidizing agent |
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Definition
| a compound found in skeletal muscle and used to resynthesize ATP from ADP |
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Definition
| rate-limiting enzyme in glycolysis that is responsive to ADP, Pi and ATP levels in the cytoplasm of the cell |
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Definition
| the addition of an electron to an atom or molecule |
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Definition
| cell is made up of the 1. Cell Membrane 2. the Nucleus and 3. Cytoplasm |
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Term
| Biological Energy Transformation |
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Definition
| All energy comes from the sun. It exists in different forms(chemical, mechanical, electrical) and are interchangable by a series of of tightly controlled chemical Reactions |
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Term
| Cellular Chemical Reactions |
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Definition
1. endergonic reactions
2. exergonic reactions
3. coupled reactions |
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Term
| Oxidative Reduction Reactions |
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Definition
+coupled oxidation-reduction reactions are analogous to a bucket brigade, with electrons being passed along in the buckets.
+reactions in cells often involve the transfer of hydrogen atoms rather than free electrons.
+in many reactions pairs of electrons are passed along btwn molecules as free electrons or as pairs of hydrogen atoms |
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Term
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Definition
Enzymes reduce the energy of activation - this increases the speed of chemical reactions and therefore increases the rate of product formation
+structure is a large protein molecule with a three dimensional shape, they have ridges and grooves that form pockets (called active sites). These active sites make it possible to form a "lock and Key" connection with a substrate.
+molecules form a complex known as the "enzyme-substrate complex" - so now the energy of activation needed for reaction is lowered |
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Definition
| the body uses carbohydrate, fat, and protein nutrients consumed daily to provide the necessary energy to maintain cellular activities both at rest and during exercise |
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Term
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Definition
Exist in three forms
1. Monosaccharides - simple sugars
--Glucose (C6H12O6) "blood sugar"
2. Disaccharides - table sugar - maltose and sucrose
3. Polysaccharides - Glycogen - storage form of glucose in muscle and liver... turning glycogen to glucose is Glycogenolysis.
+1g makes 4kcal energy
Rapidly available for energy production
Energy reserve: ~ <2,000 kcal of energy |
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Term
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Definition
1. Fatty Acids - primary type used by muscle cells for energy
2. Triglycerides - 3 FAs + 1 glycerol
-1g > 9kcal energy/ TG > FAs > energy production / slow energy release / energy reserve > 70,000kcal
3. Phospholipids - not an energy source during exercise
4. Steroids - not used as energy sources during exercise |
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Term
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Definition
Potential energy source
1g > 4kcal energy / 5-10% of energy for prolonged exercise.
+ amino acids make glucose and metabolic interdiates - which give energy |
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Term
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Definition
| ATP - structure is made of 1. adenine portion, 2. a ribose portion and 3. three linked phosphates ---- formation of ATP occurs by combining ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) - requires a large amount of energy |
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Term
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Definition
Production of ATP
1. formation of ATP by phosphocreatine (PC) breakdown 2. formation of ATP via the degradation of glucose or glycogen (called glycolysis) and 3 oxidative formation of ATP |
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Definition
1. ATP-PC System - the combination of stored ATP and PC.
-- ATP + H2O >ATPase> ADP+Pi+energy
-- PC + ADP >creatine kinase> ATP + C
-last 5-10 seconds / immediate energy supply / all-out exercise / rate-limiting enzyme: creatine kinase stimulator: ADP, inhibitor: ATP / supplement of creatine > ^PC Storage > ^performance
2. Glycolysis system - degrade glu/gly into pyruvate/lactate and produce ATP
1glu+2ATP+2ADP+2NAD>4ATP+2pyruvate+2NADH
= Net output
2 ATP/Glu
3 ATP/gly
2 pyruvate
2 NADH
- Rate-limiting enzyme (controls the speed of a metabolic pathway): phosphofructokinase (PFK)
Stimulators: AMD, ADP, Pi, pH^
Inhibitors: ATP, PC, Citrate, pH!
H+ carrier:
nicotinamide adenine dinuleotide (NAD)
NAD + H <> NADH
Converting NADH > NDA:
1. Pyruvate > lactate (anaerobic)
2. Shuttled into mitochondria (aerobic) |
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Term
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Definition
- oxidative phosphorylation
3 Stages
1. generation of acetyl CoA
- from glycolysis
- from fatty acids
- from amino acids
2. Oxidation of acetyl CoA in Krebs cycle
Krebs cycle: function - oxidation (H removal) of CHO, fat, or protein and form NADH and FADH2
- 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 formed per cycle
- 1 GTP + ADP > 1 ATP + GDP
- O2 not used in cycle
- rate limiting enzyme: isocitrate dehydrogenase
-- stimulators: ADP, CA, NAD
-- inhibitors: ATP, NADH
3. Electron Transport Chain (oxidative phosphorylation
Function:
1. transfer electrons from NADH and FANH2 to oxygen for energy production
2. prevent acidification by lowering H
-1NADH>3ATP
-1FADH2>2ATP
-require O2
-Rate limiting Enz: cytochrome oxidase
--stimulators: ADP,Pi
--inhibitors: ATP |
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Term
| Aerobic/Anaerobic Interaction in Exercise |
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Definition
- Energy Production - a combination of Aerobic and Anaerobic metabolism.
- shorter duration and higher intensity: more anaerobic and less aerobic
- Longer duration and lower intensity: more aerobic and less anaerobic |
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Term
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Definition
| the aerobic metabolism of one molecule of glucose results in the production of 32 ATP molecules, whereas the aerobic ATP yield for glycogen breakdown is 33 ATP |
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Term
| Efficiency of Oxidative Phosphorylation |
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Definition
| the overall efficiency of aerobic respiration is approximately 34%, with the remaining 66% of the energy being released as heat |
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Term
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Definition
| Metabolism is regulated by enzymatic activity. An enzyme that regulates a metabolic pathway is termed the "rate-limiting" enzyme. |
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Definition
| regulated by creatine kinase activity |
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Term
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Definition
| most important rate-limiting enzyme is phosphofructokinase (PFK) PFK is located near the beginning of glycolysis. Another regulatory enzyme is phosphorylase, which is responsible for degrading glycogen to glucose. |
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Term
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Definition
rate limiting enzymes are isocitrate dehydrogenase and cytochrome oxidase,
In general, cellular levels of ATP and ADP + Pi regulate the rate of metabolic pathways involved in the production of ATP. High levels of ATP inhibit further ATP production, while low levels of ATP and high levels of ADP + Pi stimulate ATP production. Evidence also exists that calcium may stimulate aerobic energy metabolism |
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Term
| Interaction between aerobic/anaerobic ATP production |
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Definition
Energy to perform exercise comes from an interaction of anaerobic and aerobic pathways.
In general, the shorter the activity (high intensity), the greater the contribution of anaerobic energy production. In contrast, long term activities (low to moderate intensity) utilize ATP produced from aerobic sources. |
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Term
| "carrier molecules" of hydrogen (and electrons) |
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Definition
Oxidized form of NAD, Reduced form is NADH.
Oxidized form of FAD, Reduced form is FADH. |
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Term
| Classification of Enzymes |
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Definition
+Oxidoreductases - catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions
+Transferases - catalyze the transfer of elements from one molecule to another
+Hydrolases - catalyze the transfer of elements from one molecule to another
+Lyases - catalyze reactions in which groups of elements are removed to form a double bond or are added to an existing double bond
+Isomerases - catalyze reactions that result in the rearrangement of the structure of molecules
+Ligases - catalyze bond formation between two substrate molecules |
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Term
| Factors that alter enzyme activity |
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Definition
Temperature - raise in body temp. increases the activity of most enzymes - this enhances bioenergetics by speeding up rate of reactions
pH - similar to temp. however if pH is altered from the optimum, the enzyme activity is reduced. |
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Term
| Explain the statement that "ATP is the universal energy donor" |
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Definition
| because it produces a usable form of energy required by all cells |
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Term
| Briefly discuss the function of glycolysis in bioenergetics. What role does NAD play in glycolysis. |
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Definition
| Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose or glycogen to form two molecules of pyruvic acid or lactic acid. (is an anaerobic pathway used to transfer bond energy from glucose to rejoin Pi to ADP. NAD accepts one of the hydrogens, while the remaining hydrogen is free in solution. |
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Term
| Discuss the operation of the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain in the production of ATP. What is the function of NAD and FAD in these pathways? |
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Definition
During the Krebs cycle, 3NADH and 1FADH are formed - For every FADH molecule - enough energy is available to produce 1.5 ATP.
In the Electron Transport Chain - Aerobic production of ATP is possible due to a mechanism that uses the potential energy available in NADH and FADH to rephosphoylate ADP to ATP. |
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Term
| What is the efficiency of the aerobic degradation of glucose? |
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Definition
| the aerobic metabolism of one molecule of glucose results in the production of 32 ATP molecules, whereas the aerobic ATP yield for glycogen breakdown is 33 ATP |
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Term
| What enzyme regulates glycolysis? The Krebs Cycle |
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Definition
Glycolysis regulation - Phosphofructokinsase.
Krebs cycle regulation - Isocitrate dehydrogenase |
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