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| A pure substance that contains only one kind of atom. |
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| About 98 percent of the mass of every living organism is composed of just six elements: |
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| Forms as a result of the electrical attraction between ions bearing opposite charges. |
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| Forms when two atoms attain stable electron numbers in their outermost shells by sharing one or more pairs of electrons. |
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| Ionic bonds result in stable molecules that are often referred to as ____ |
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| The ectronegativity of a nucleus depends on how many ___ it has and on the ____ in the bond and the ___ (the closer they are, the greater the electronegative pull). |
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| positive charges; distance between the electrons; nucleus |
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| Nuclei with more ____ are more positive and thus more ___ to electrons |
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| T/F: A hydrogen bond is much weaker than a covalent bond |
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| Hydrogen bonds together have considerable strength and can greatly influence ___ and properties of the substances. |
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| Hydrogen bonding between water molecules also contributes to two properties of water of great significance for living systems: |
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| heat capacity and cohesion |
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| ___ play important roles in determining and maintaining the three-dimensional shapes of giant molecules |
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| The capacity of water molecules to resist coming apart from one another when placed under tension |
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| Molecules with ____ are attracted to polar water (they are hydrophilic) |
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| Molecules with ____ show greater attraction to one another than to water (they are hydrophobic) |
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| hydrocarbon molecules are |
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| Functional groups determine ____ |
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| molecular shape and reactivity |
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| ____ are formed by covalent linkages of smaller molecules |
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Definition
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| Four kinds of macromolecules are characteristic of living things: |
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Definition
| proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids |
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| ___ form large structures from a limited set of smaller molecules |
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| ____ are formed from different combinations of 20 amino acids, all of which share chemical similarities. |
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| Carbohydrates are formed by: |
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| linking together monosaccharides to form polysaccharides |
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| ___ are formed from four kinds of nucleotide monomers linked together in long chains. |
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| These forces maintain the interactions between the lipid monomers |
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Definition
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| the removal of water links monomers together. |
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| the addition of water breaks a polymer into monomers. |
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| these biological molecules are polymers constructed by the covalent bonding of smaller molecules called monomers |
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Definition
| proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids |
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| reactions that link monomers into polymers and produce water. |
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| reactions that break polymers into individual monomers and consume water. |
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| Carbohydrates have the general formula: |
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| Carbohydrates have four major biochemical roles: |
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1) source of stored energy
2) used to transport stored energy within complex organisms
3) function as structural molecules that give many organisms their shapes
4) serve as recognition or signaling molecules that can trigger specific biological responses. |
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Definition
| Simple molecules with up to seven carbon atoms that differ in their arrangements of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms |
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| The ____ are all constructed from monosaccharides that are covalently bonded by _____ that form glycosidic linkages. |
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Definition
| disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides; condensation reactions |
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| A single ___ between two monosaccharides forms a disaccharide |
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| ___ contain several monosaccharides bound together by glycosidic linkages. |
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| ___ are often ___ bonded to proteins and lipids on the outer surfaces of cells, where they serve as recognition signals. |
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| Oligosaccharides; covalently |
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| ___ are large polymers of monosaccharides connected by glycosidic linkages |
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| The principal energy storage compound of plants. |
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| Starches comprise a family of giant molecules that are all polysaccharides of ___. |
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| A water-insoluble, highly branched polymer of glucose that is the major energy storage molecule in mammals. |
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| The most abundant carbon-containing (organic) biological compound on Earth. |
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| Lipids are ___ (composed of C and H atoms) that are insoluble in water because of their many ____. |
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| hydrocarbons; nonpolar covalent bonds |
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| When nonpolar hydrocarbons are close together, weak ___ interactions hold them together. |
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| Lipids play several roles in living organisms: |
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Definition
1) store energy in the C—C and C—H bonds
2) structural roles in cell membranes and on body surfaces b/c nonpolarity makes them insoluble in water
3) thermal insulation |
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| The most common units of lipids |
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Definition
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| Small molecule with three hydroxyl (—OH) groups; thus it is an alcohol. |
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Definition
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| t/f: broken-down lipids yield more than twice as much energy as degraded carbohydrates. |
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Definition
| A molecule with a hydrophilic end and a long hydrophobic tail (two opposing chemical properties) |
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| Phospholipids contain fatty acids bound to ___ and a _____ compound replaces one of the fatty acids, giving these molecules amphipathic properties |
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Definition
| phosphate-containing; glycerol |
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| When simple molecules linked to form more complex molecules |
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Definition
| Anabolic reactions/ anabolism |
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| break down complex molecules into simpler ones and release the energy stored in the chemical bonds |
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Definition
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| The first law of thermodynamics: |
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Definition
| Energy is neither created nor destroyed. |
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| The second law of thermodynamics: |
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Definition
Disorder tends to increase.
When energy is converted from one form to another, some of that energy becomes unavailable for doing work |
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| A fatty acid consists of a long nonpolar __ chain attached to the polar ___ group, and it is therefore a ___. |
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Definition
| hydrocarbon; carboxyl; carboxylic acid |
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| Endergonic or endothermic reactions that require an input of energy and capture the energy in the chemical bonds that are formed |
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