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Chapter 2
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104
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
09/08/2014

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Term
mental contents
Definition
compromise knowledge, beliefes and feelings
Term
mental processes
Definition
sets of operations that wokr together to carry out a function, such as attention, perception, or memory
Term
neuron
Definition
a cell that receives signals from sense organs or other neurons, processes thesesignals, and sensthe signals to muscles, organs, or other neurons; the basic unit of the nervous system
Term
sensory neuron
Definition
neuron that responds to signals from sensory organs and transmits those signals to the brain and spinal cord
Term
motor neuron
Definition
a neuron that sends signals to muscles in order to control movement (and also to bodily organs, such as glands).
Term
interneuron
Definition
a neuron that is connected to other neurons, not to sense organs or muscles
Term
brain circuit
Definition
a set of neurons that work together to receive input, operate on it it in some way, and produce specific output.
Term
cell body
Definition
the central part of a neuron which contains the nucleus
Term
cell membrane
Definition
the skin that surrounds a cell
Term
axon
Definition
the sending end of the neuron; the long cablelike structure extending from the cell body
Term
terminal button
Definition
a structure at the end of the brand of an axon that can release chemicals into the space between neurons
Term
dendrite
Definition
the reelike part of a neuron that receives messages from the axons of other neurons
Term
resting potential
Definition
the negative charge within a neuron when it is at rest
Term
ion
Definition
an atom that hsa a positive or negative charge
Term
action potential
Definition
the shifting change in charge that moves down the axon
Term
all or none law
Definition
states that if the neuron is sufficiently stimulated, it fires, sending the action potential all the way down the axon and releasing chemicals from the terminal buttons; either the action potential occurs or it doesn't.
Term
myelin
Definition
a fatty substance that helps impulses efficiently travel down the axon
Term
synapse
Definition
the place where an axon of one neuron sends signals to the membrane of another neuron; the synapse includes the sending portions of an axon, the receiving portions of the receiving neuron, and the space inbetween them (synaptic cleft)
Term
synaptic cleft
Definition
the gap in the synapse between the axon of one neuron and the membrane of anohter across which communication occurs
Term
neurotransmiter substance
Definition
a chemical that carries a signal from the terminal button of one neuron to the dendrite or cell body of another; often referred to as a neurotransmitter
Term
endogenous cannabinoids
Definition
neurotransmitter substances released by the receiving neuron that then influence the activity of the sending neuron
Term
receptor
Definition
a site on a dendrite or cell body where a neurotransmitter molecule attatches itself; like a lock that is opened by one key, a receptor receives only one type of neurotransmitter
Term
reuptake
Definition
the process by which surplus neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft is reabsorbed back into the sending neuron so that the neuron can effectively fire again
Term
agonist
Definition
a chemical that mimics the effects of a neurotransmitter by activating a type of receptor
Term
selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)
Definition
a chemical that blocks the effect of a neurotransmitter
Term
Antagonist
Definition
a chemical that blocks the effect of a neurotransmitter
Term
Glial cells
Definition
a type of cell that helps neurons to form both synapses and connections when the brain is developing, influences the communication among neurons, and generall helps in the "care and feeding" of neurons
Term
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Definition
the autonomic nervous system and the sensory-somatic nervous system.
Term
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Definition
controls the smooth muscles in  the body, some glandular functions, and many of the body's self-regulating activities, such as digestion and circulation
Term
sympathetic nervous system
Definition
part of the autonomic nervous system that readies an animal to fight or to flee by speeding up the heart, increasing breathing rate to deliver more oxygen, dilating the pupils, producing sweat, decreasing salivation, inhibiting activity in the stomach, and relaxing the bladder
Term
parasympathetic nervous system
Definition
part of the autonomic nervous system that is "next to" the sympathetic nervous system and that tends to counteract its effects.
Term
Sensory-somatic nervous system
Definition
part of the peripheral nervous system that consists of neurons in the sensory organs that convey info to the brain as well as neurons that actually trigger muscles and glands
Term
somatic motor system
Definition
consists of nerves that are attached to muscles that can be used voluntarily (striated muscles).
Term
spinal cord
Definition
the felxible rope of neurons and their connections that runs inside the backbone (spinal collumn).
Term
central nervous system (CNS)
Definition
the spinal cord and the brain
Term
reflex
Definition
an automatic behavioral response to an event
Term
meninges
Definition
three protective layred membranes that cover the brain
Term
cerebral hemisphere
Definition
a left or right halfbrain, shaped roughly like a half a sphere
Term
lobes
Definition
the four major parts of each cerebral hemisphere--occiptal, temporal, parietal, and frontal; each lobe is present in each hemisphere
Term
corpus callosum
Definition
the large bundle of axons that connects the two halves of the brain
Term
cerebral cortex
Definition
the convoluted pinkish-gray outer layer of the brain where most mentral processes arise
Term
subcoritical structures
Definition
parts of the brain located under the cerebral cortex
Term
sulcus
Definition
a crease in the cerebral cortex
Term
gyrus
Definition
a buldge between the sulci in the cerebral cortex
Term
brain system
Definition
a set of brain circuits that work together to accomplish a particular task
Term
occipital lobes
Definition
the brain loves at the back of the head; concerned entirely with different aspects of vision
Term
temporal lobes
Definition
the brain loves under the temples, in front of the ears; among its many functions are processing sound, entering new information into memory, storing visual memories, and comprehending language.
Term
parietal lobes
Definition
the brain lobes at the top, rear of the brain; among their functions are attention, arithmetic, touch and registering spatial location
Term
somatosensory strip
Definition
the gyrus immediately behind the central sulcus; it registers sensations on the body and is organized by body part
Term
frontal lobes
Definition
the brain loves located behind the forehead; critically involved in planning,memory search, motor control, speech control, reasoning, and emotions
Term
motor strip
Definition
the gyrus immediately in front of the central sulcus; it controls fine movements and is organized by body part. it is also called primary motor cortex
Term
split-brain patient
Definition
a person whose corpus callosum has been severed for medical reasons, so that nerual signals no longer pass from one cerebral hemisphere to the other
Term
forebrain
Definition
according to a historical way of organizing brain structures, a unit of the brain that includes the cortex, thalamus, limbic system, and basal ganglia
Term
thalamus
Definition
a subortical structure that receives signals from sensory and motor systems and plays a crucial role in attention, sleep, and other functions critical to daily life; often thought of as a switching center
Term
hypothalamus
Definition
a brain structure that sits under the thalamus and plays a central role in controlling eating and drinking an din refulating the body's temperature, blood pressure, heart rate, sexual behavior, and hormones
Term
hippocampus
Definition
a subcoritcal structure that plays a key role in allowing new info to be stored in the brain's memory banks
Term
amyglada
Definition
a subcortical structure that plays a special role in fear and is involved in other types of strong emotions, such as anger.
Term
limbic system
Definition
a set of brain areas, including the hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, and other areas, that has long been thought of as being involved inkey aspects of emotion and motivation,namely those underlying fighting, fleeing, feeding, and sex
Term
basal ganglia
Definition
subcortical structures that play a role in planning, learning new habits, and producing movement.
Term
brainstem
Definition
the set of structures at the base of the brain--including the midbrain, medulla, and pons-- that feed into and recieve info from the spinal cord
Term
medulla
Definition
the lowest part of the lower brainstem, which plays a central role in automatic control of breathing, swallowing, and blood circulation.
Term
reticular formation
Definition
a collection of small structures in the brainstem, organized into two main parts: the reticular activating system and another part that is important in producing autonomic nervous system reactions
Term
pons
Definition
a bridge between the medulla and midbrain, which also connects the upper parts of the brain to the cerebellum
Term
cerebellum
Definition
a large structure at the base of the brain that is concerned in part with phsycial coordination, estimating time, and paying attention
Term
hindbrain
Definition
according to a historical way of organizing brain structures, a unit of the brain that includes the medulla, pons, cerebellum, and partsof the reticular formation
Term
midbrain
Definition
according to a historical way of organizing brain structures, a unit of the brain that includes parts of the reticular formation as well as the brainstem structures that lie between forebrain and hindbrain
Term
hormone
Definition
a chemical that is produced by a gland and can act as a neurotransmitter substance
Term
neuroendocrine system
Definition
the system that makes hormones that affect many bodily functions and that also provides the CNS with information.
Term
testosterone
Definition
the hormone that causes males to develop facial hair and other external sexual characteristics, and to build up muscle volume
Term
estrogen
Definition
the hormone that causes girls to develop breats and is involved in the menstrual cycle
Term
cortisol
Definition
a hormone produced by the outer layer of the adrenal glands that helps the  body cope with the extra energy demands of stress
Term
pituitary gland
Definition
the "master gland" that regulates other glands but is itself controlled by the brain, primarily via connections from the hypothalamus
Term
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA)
Definition
the system of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands that is activated by stress, injury, and infection and that works to fight off infection.
Term
lesion
Definition
a region of impaired brain tissue
Term
stroke
Definition
a cause of brain dmage that occurs when blood (with its life-giving nutrients and oxygen) fails to reach part of the brain, and thus neurons in that area die.
Term
electroencephalograph
Definition
a machine that records electrical activity in the brain
Term
electroencephalogram (EEG)
Definition
a tracing of brain waves of electrical fluctuation over time
Term
magnetoencephalography (MEG)
Definition
a technique for assessing brain activity that relies on recording magnetic waves produced by nerual activity
Term
single-cell recording
Definition
the technique in which tiny probes called microelectrodes are placed in the brain and used to record neural firing rates
Term
neuroimaging
Definition
brain-scanning techniques that produce a picture of the structure orfunctioning regions of the brain.
Term
computer-assisted tomography
Definition
a neuroimaging technique that produces a three-dimensional image of brain structures using Xrays
Term
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Definition
a technique that uses magnetic properties of atoms to take pictures of the three-dimensional structure of the brain
Term
positron emission tomography (PET)
Definition
a neuroimaging technique that uses small amounts of a radioactive substance to track bloodflow or energy consumption in the brain
Term
functional magnetic resonsance imaging (fMRI)
Definition
a type of magnetic resonance imaging that detects the amount of oxygen being brought to particular places in the brain, which indicated how active those neurons are.
Term
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
Definition
a technique in which the brain is stimulated from outside by putting a coil on a person's head and delivering a magnetic pulse (or series of magnetic pulses); the magnetic fields are so strong that they make neurons under the coil fire.
Term
Mendelian inheritance
Definition
the transmission of charateristics by individual elements of inheritance (now known to be genes), each acting separately
Term
gene
Definition
a stretch of the DNA molecule that produces a specific protein
Term
genotype
Definition
the genetic code within an organism
Term
phenotype
Definition
the observable structure and behavio of an organism
Term
complex inheritance
Definition
the transmission of characteristics by the joint action of combinations of genes working together; also called polygenetic inheritance
Term
pruning
Definition
a process whereby certain connections among neurons are eliminated.
Term
plasticity
Definition
the brain's ability to changeas a result of experience
Term
passive interaction
Definition
occurs when genetically shaped behavioral tendencies of parents or siblings produce an enviornment that is passively received by the child
Term
evocative (or reactive) interaction
Definition
occurs when genetically influenced characteristics (both behavioral and phsycial) induce other peopleto behave in particular ways.
Term
active interaction
Definition
occurs when people choose, partly based on genetic tendencies, to put themselves in specific situations and to avoid others.
Term
behavioral genetics
Definition
the field in which researchers attempt to determine th extent to which the differences among peoples behaviors and psychological characteristcs are due to their different genes or to differences in thei environments
Term
heritability
Definition
the degree to which the variability of a characteristic or ability in a population is due to genetics--given a specific enviornment.
Term
twin study
Definition
a study that compares identical and fraternal twins to determine the relatiive contribution of genes to variability in a characteristic or ability
Term
monozygotic
Definition
from the same egg, and having virtually identical genes
Term
dizygotic
Definition
from different eggs and sharing only as many genes as any pair of siblins--on average, half.
Term
adoption study
Definition
a study in which characteristics of children adopted at birth are compared to those of their adoptive parents of siblings versus their bioligical parents or siblings
Term
evolution
Definition
gene-based changes in the characteristics or abilities of members of a species ober successive generations
Term
natural selection
Definition
occurs when individuals with inherited characteristics that contribute to survival have more offspring, and over time those characteristics come to be widespread in a population
Term
adaptation
Definition
an inherited characterisitc that increases an organism's ability to survive and reproduce successfully
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