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| long-term change in mental representations or associations due to experience |
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| various ways of thinking about information and events |
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| particular way of mentally responding to or thinking about information or an event |
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| changing the format of information being stored in memory in order to remember it more easily |
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| cell in the brain or another part of the nervous system that transmits information to other cells |
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| chemical substrate with which one neuron sends a message to another |
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| tiny space across which one neuron regularly communicates with another; reflects an ongoing but modifiable connection between the two neurons |
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| upper and outer parts of the human brain, which are largely responsible for conscious and higher-level human thought processes |
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| ability to save something (mentally) that has been previously learned; also, the mental “location” where such information is saved |
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| process of “putting” new information into memory |
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| process of “finding” information previously stored in memory |
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| component of memory that holds incoming information in an unanalyzed form for a very brief time (perhaps one to two seconds) |
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| focusing of mental processes on particular stimuli |
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| component of memory that holds and actively thinks about and processes a limited amount of information |
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| cognitive process in which information is repeated over and over as a possible way of learning and remembering it |
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| component of memory that holds knowledge and skills for a relatively long time |
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| knowledge related to “what is”--that is, to the nature of how things are, were, or will be |
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| knowledge concerning how to do something (e.g., a skill) |
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| mental grouping of objects or events that have something in common |
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| general understanding of what an object or event is typically like |
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| schema that involves a predictable sequence of events related to a common activity |
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| integrated set of concepts and principles developed to explain a particular phenomenon |
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| examples of prominent behaviorists |
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| B.F. Skinner, Edward Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov |
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| examples of prominent social learning theorists |
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| Albert Bandura, Dale Schunk, Barry Zimmerman |
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| examples of prominent information processing theorists |
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| Richard Atkinson, Richard Shiffrin, John Anderson, Alan Baddeley, Elizabeth Loftus |
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| examples of prominent constructivists |
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| Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, John Bransford, Giyoo Hatano |
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| examples of prominent sociocultural theorists |
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| Lev Vygotsky, Barbara Rogoff, Mary Gauvain, Jean Lave |
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| general description of behaviorism |
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| focus on two things that researchers can observe and measure: people’s behaviors (responses) and the environmental events (stimuli, reinforcement) that precede and follow those responses |
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| general description of social learning theory |
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| focus on the ways in which people learn from observing one another |
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| general description of information processing theory |
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| focus on the cognitive processes involved in learning, memory, and performance |
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| general description of constructivism |
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| some focus on how individual learners create knowledge through their interactions with the environment (individual constructivism) while others emphasize that by working together, two or more people can often gain better understandings than anyone could gain alone (social constructivism) |
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| general description of sociocultural theory |
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| focus on the social, cultural, and historical contexts in which children grow up have profound influences on thinking, learning, and effective instructional practice |
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| You are moving through a lecture with students at a brisk pace. Many students keep asking you to repeat what you are saying and ask, “Can you please slow down?” The next day, students cannot recall anything you have discussed in your lecture. Using your understanding of the model of human memory, explain these students’ behaviors and performances. |
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Definition
Think about…
input, sensory register, attention, working memory, cognitive processing, long-term memory |
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| Your students are all reading the same article. When you ask them to orally summarize the setting and describe the scene, students give widely varying responses. You find that many students use information to draw logical but incorrect inferences. Using what you know about learning as a constructive process, explain why students have given such widely varying responses. |
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Definition
Think about…
learning, implicit learning, explicit learning, general theoretical approaches to the study of learning, cognition, cognitive processes, encoding, prior knowledge |
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| cognitive process in which learners try to remember information in a relatively uninterpreted form, with little or no effort to make sense or attach meaning to it |
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| cognitive process in which learners relate new information to things they already know |
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| repeating something over and over |
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| Johnny is studying for his vocabulary test. He decided he will remember the words best if he can memorize the by repeating the words and definitions over and over. What type of learning is Johnny partaking in? |
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| Rote learning / rehearsal |
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| learners embellish on new information based on what they already know |
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| learning find connections among various pieces of information they need to learn by arranging the new information in a logical structure |
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| learners form a mental picture of objects or ideas to retrieve information in long-term memory |
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| Silvia is learning Chinese. She learns that the Chinese word for “house” is “fáng”. In order to remember this, Silvia pictures a house with fangs growing on its roofs and walls. Which process of long-term memory is Silvia using? |
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| What are the three processing to engage in meaningful learning? |
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Elaboration
Organization
Visual Imagery |
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| ability to respond quickly and efficiently while mentally processing or physically performing a task / well practiced knowledge or skills (ex: 2+2=4 or riding a bike) |
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| Tommy is naturally good at math and can perform simple addition quickly and effortlessly. For example, Tommy knows that 2 + 2 = 4 without counting or using a calculator. Tommy has achieved _________ with his simple addition skills. |
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| intentional use of one or more cognitive processes for a particular learning task |
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| a person’s existing knowledge about specific topics and the world in general |
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| the tendency to seek out information that confirms rather than discredits one’s current beliefs |
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| stimulus that provides guidance about where to “look” for a piece of information in the long-term memory |
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| construction of a logical but incorrect “memory” by combining information retrieved from one’s long-term memory with one’s general knowledge and beliefs about the world |
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| inability to locate information that currently exists in long-term memory |
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| weakening over time of information stored in long-term memory, especially if the information is used infrequently |
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| Prior knowledge activation |
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| Process of reminding learners of things they have already learned relative to a new topic |
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| Knowledge about a topic acquired in an integrated and meaningful fashion |
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| Length of time a teacher pauses, after either asking a question or hearing a student’s comment, before saying something |
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| Memory aid or trick designed to help students learn and remember a specific piece of information. |
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| Word or phrase that forms a logical connection or “bridge” between two pieces of information. |
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| Mnemonic technique in which an association is made between two ideas by forming a visual image of one or more concrete objects (keywords) that either sound similar to, or symbolically represent, those ideas |
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| Superimposed meaningful structure |
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| Familiar share, word, sentence, poem, or story imposed on information in order to facilitate recall. |
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| Revision of one’s understanding of a topic in response to new information. |
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| Deficiency in one or more specific cognitive processes despite relatively normal cognitive functioning in other areas. |
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| Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |
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| Disorder marked by inattention, inability to inhibit inappropriate thoughts and behaviors, or both. |
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| Strategies for promoting effective cognitive processes |
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| Remember how the human memory system works, encourage effective long-term memory storage, promote retrieval, monitor students’ progress. |
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| Strategies for classroom practices that take into consideration how the human memory system works |
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| Grab students’ attention, keep in mind the limited capacity of working memory, relate new ideas to students’ prior knowledge and experiences, accommodate diversity is background knowledge, provide experiences on which students can build |
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| Strategies for encouraging effective long-term memory storage |
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| Present questions that encourage elaboration, show how new ideas are interrelated, facilitate visual imagery, give students time to think, suggest mnemonics |
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| Strategies for promoting retrieval |
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| Provide opportunities to practice knowledge and skills, give hints to help students recall or reconstruct what they’ve learned |
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| Strategies for monitoring students’ progress |
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| Informal and formal assessments, regularly assess students’ understandings, identify and address misconceptions, focus assessments on meaningful (not rote) learning, be on the look out for students who have unusual difficulty with certain cognitive processes |
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| You just introduced a new topic in your sophomore biology class and you notice that the students seem to be resorting to rote learning rather than meaningful learning. How can you encourage more meaningful learning? |
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Think about….
Prior knowledge activation, accommodating diversity in students’ background knowledge, providing experiences on which students can build |
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| You are teaching your middle school students about the Great Lakes but the class is having trouble remembering the names of the lakes. How might you use mnemonics to assist them in remembering this specific piece of information? |
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Think about….
Effective long-term memory storage, facilitating visual imagery, suggesting mnemonics, common mnemonic techniques
HOMES (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior) |
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| In physics, Tony has learned that velocity is the product of acceleration and time. He decides this can be remembered by using the formula (v = a x t). Which type of meaningful learning has Tony utilized? |
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