Term
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Definition
| individual nerve cell in the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| other cells in the brain that support neurons in a variety of ways |
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Term
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Definition
| recieve messages from other neurons |
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Term
| what is a soma and what does it do? |
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Definition
| cell body or the body of the neuron; recieves messages and sends the down the axons |
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Term
| what is an axon and what does it do? |
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Definition
| fiber that carries infromation away from the cell body of a neuron |
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Term
| what are axon terminals and what do they do? |
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Definition
| branches that link the dendrites and somas of other neurons |
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Term
| what is resting potential? |
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Definition
| electrical charge of an inactive "resting" neuron; since more negative ions ar inside the axon |
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Term
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Definition
| trigger point for a neurons firing (about -50 millivolts) |
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Term
| what is action potential and what happens during one? |
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Definition
| nerve impulse triggered when a neuron reaches it threshold, or trigger point for firing; during one, ion channels open, allowing positive ions to rush in, briefly pushing the charge up to +30 millivolts |
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Term
| what are ion channels and what do they do? |
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Definition
| tiny openings through the axon membrane; they first open near the soma and then gate after gate opens down the length of an axon as the action potential zips along |
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Term
| what refers to an all-or-nothing event? |
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Definition
| each action potential (it occurs completely or not at all) |
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Term
| what is "negative after potential"? |
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Definition
| after an action potential, a neuron dips below its resting potential and becomes less ready to "fire" |
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Term
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Definition
| a fatty layer coating some axons |
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Term
| what is saltatory conduction? |
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Definition
| nerve impulses conducted down the axons of neurons coated with myelin jump (“saltate” is Latin for “jump”) from gap to gap in the myelin layer |
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Term
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Definition
| microscopic space between two neurons |
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Term
| what is the receptor site? |
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Definition
| area on the surface of neurons and other cells that is sensitive to neurotransmitters or hormones |
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Term
| what are neurotransmitters and what do they do? |
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Definition
| chemicals that alter activity when they cross the synaptic gap and attach to receptor sites on the next neuron; Some neurotransmitters excite the next neuron (move it closer to firing) and some inhibit the next neuron |
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Term
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Definition
| excitatory neurotransmitter that participates in movement, autonomic functions, learning, and memory |
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Term
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Definition
| excitatory neurotransmitter that participates in motivation, reward, and planning of behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| inhibitory neurotransmitter that exerts inhibitory control over central nervous system; participates in moods |
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Term
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Definition
| excitatory neurotransmitter that exerts excitatory control over central nervous system; participates in learning and memory |
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Term
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Definition
| excitatory neurotransmitter that participates in arousal, vigilance, and mood |
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Term
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Definition
| excitatory neurotransmitter that participates in mood, appetite, and sleep |
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Term
| what are the neuropeptides and what do they do? |
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Definition
| regulate activity of other neurons; they are enkephalins and endorphins (placebos raise endorphin levels) |
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Term
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Definition
| similar to endorphins, they relieve pain and stress |
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Term
| what are endorphins and what do they do? |
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Definition
| they are released by the pituitary gland; they also help to relieve pain |
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Term
| neurons _________ with each other to form _____ _______. |
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Definition
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Term
| what does it mean: neural networks are neuroplastic? |
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Definition
| neuroplastic means that it allows our brains to change in response to experience |
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Term
| what does the central nervous system consist of? |
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Definition
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Term
| what does the peripheral nervous system consist of? |
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Definition
| all parts of the system outside of the brain and spinal cord |
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Term
| what is the difference between neurons and nerves? |
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Definition
| Neurons are single nerve cells; nerves are large bundles of many neuron axons |
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Term
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Definition
| thin layer of cells wrapped around axons outside brain and spinal cord; forms a tunnel that damaged fibers follow as they repair themselves |
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Term
| what does the somatic nervous system do? |
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Definition
| carries messages to and from skeletal muscles and sense organs; controls voluntary behavior |
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Term
| what does the autonomic nervous system do? |
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Definition
| serves internal organs and glands; controls automatic functions such as heart rate and digestion pressure |
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Term
| what is the sympathetic branch and what does it do? |
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Definition
| arouses body; emergency system |
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Term
| what does the parasympathetic branch do? |
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Definition
| quiets body; most active after an emotional event |
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Term
| what determines the degree of body arousal? |
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Definition
| the combined activity of both the somatic and autonomic branches |
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Term
| what does the spinal cord do? |
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Definition
| connects the brain to other parts of the body |
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Term
| what are spinal nerves and what do they do? |
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Definition
| 31 pairs of nerves that carry sensory and motor messages between the spinal cord and the body |
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Term
| what are cranial nerves and what do they do? |
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Definition
| 12 pairs of nerves that leave the brain directly; also work to communicate messages between the brain and the body |
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Term
| what is the reflex arc and what does it do? |
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Definition
| simplest behavior; occurs when a stimulus provokes an automatic response in the spinal cord without involving the brain |
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Term
| what is a sensory neuron and what does it do? |
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Definition
| nerve cell that carries messages from the senses toward the CNS |
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Term
| what is a connector neuron and what does it do? |
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Definition
| nerve cell that links two others |
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Term
| what is a motor neuron and what does it do? |
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Definition
| nerve cell that carries commands from the CNS to muscles and glands |
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Term
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Definition
| the production of new brain cells to replace ones that have been lost |
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Term
| what is a computed tomographic (CT) scan? |
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Definition
| computer-enhanced X-ray of the brain or body from a number of different angles |
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Term
| what is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)? |
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Definition
| uses a strong magnetic field, not an X-ray, to produce a 3D image of the body’s interior |
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Term
| what is localization of function? |
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Definition
| Research strategy of linking specific structures in the brain with specific psychological or behavioral functions |
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Term
| what is a clinical case study? |
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Definition
| individual cases of people who have suffered brain damage through a disease or injury and have consequently experienced changed personality, behavior, or sensory capacity |
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Term
| what are neurological soft signs? |
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Definition
| telltale signs that a person’s brain is not working properly (e.g. awkward gait or poor eye-hand coordination) |
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Term
| what is electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)? |
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Definition
| when an electrode is used to activate target areas in the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| surgical removal of parts of the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| an electrode is lowered into a specific area inside the brain; electrical current is then used to destroy a small amount of brain tissue |
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Term
| what is an electroencephalograph (EEG)? |
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Definition
| a device that detects, amplifies, and records electrical activity in the brain |
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Term
| what is positron emission tomography (PET)? |
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Definition
| computer-generated color image of brain activity, based on glucose consumption in the brain |
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Term
| what is a functional MRI? |
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Definition
| type of MRI that makes brain activity visible |
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Term
| what is the cerebral cortex? |
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Definition
| outer layer of the brain; contains 70% of neurons in CNS; looks like a giant, wrinkled walnut |
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Term
| what does the cortex consist of? |
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Definition
| two large hemispheres that cover the upper part of the brain; the hemispheres are divided into lobes |
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Term
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Definition
| increase in size and wrinkling of the cortex; superior human experience is due to corticalization |
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Term
| what is superior human intelligence due to? |
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Definition
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Term
| what are the cerebral hemispheres? |
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Definition
| right and left halves of the cerebral cortex |
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Term
| what is the corpus callosum? |
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Definition
| bundle of fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres |
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Term
| what is the result of "split-brain"? |
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Definition
| the two hemispheres of the brain can no longer communicate with each other; this is rare and often used as a last resort, though |
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Term
| what percentage of humans use the left side of their brain for language? |
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Definition
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Term
| what is the left hemisphere good at? |
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Definition
| math, judging time and rhythm, and coordinating order of complex movements; analysis and processing information sequentially |
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Term
| what is right hemisphere good at? |
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Definition
| perceptual skills, such as recognizing patterns, faces, and melodies; expressing and detecting others’ emotions; holistic processing (processing information together in one large chunk); & processing information simultaneously |
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Term
| what are the frontal lobes responsible for? |
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Definition
| controls sense of self, motor control, and higher mental abilities such as reasoning and planning; Contains primary motor cortex; controls motor movement |
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Term
| what are mirror neurons and what do they do? |
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Definition
| contained in motor cortex; become active when motor action is carried out and when another organism is observed carrying out the same action |
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Term
| where are the frontal lobes located? |
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Definition
| at the front of the cortex |
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Term
| what do the frontal lobes contain? |
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Definition
| frontal association areas |
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Term
| what are association areas (association cortex) and what do they do? |
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Definition
| are not primarily sensory or motor in function; instead, they combine and process information |
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Term
| where is the prefrontal cortex located and what does it do? |
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Definition
| in front of the frontal lobes; involved in sense of self, reasoning, and planning |
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Term
| Left frontal lobe contains ______ in ___% of people (in right frontal lobe for the other ____%) |
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Definition
Brocas area; 95; 5
*Related to processing grammar and pronunciation
*If damaged, person knows what s/he wants to say but can’t say the words |
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Term
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Definition
| language disturbance resulting from brain damage |
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Term
| where are the parietal lobes located? |
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Definition
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Term
| the parietal lobes contain the primary somatosensory cortex; what is it responsible for? |
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Definition
| receiving area for bodily sensations such as touch, pain, and temperature |
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Term
| where are the temporal lobes located? |
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Definition
| on each side of the cortex |
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Term
| what do the temporal lobes contain and what is it? |
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Definition
| primary auditory area; recieving area for auditory information |
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Term
| what does the left temporal lobe contain in 95% of people? (in the right temporal lobe for the other 5%) |
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Definition
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Term
| where are the occipatal lobes located? |
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Definition
| at the back of the cortex |
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Term
| what do the occipatal lobes contain and what does that do? |
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Definition
primary visual area, receiving area for visual information; primary visual area, receiving area for visual information (damage here can cause agnosias
visual agnosia: inability to identify seen objects
facial agnosia: inability to perceive familiar faces) |
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Term
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Definition
| inability to identify seen objects |
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Term
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Definition
| inability to percieve familiar faces |
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Term
| what is the subcortex and what is it divided into? |
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Definition
| all brain structures immediately beneath cerebral cortex; divided into hindbrain (brainstem), midbrain, and the forebrain |
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Term
| what does the hindbrain (brainstem) consist of ? |
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Definition
| medulla, pons, and cerebullum |
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Term
| what is the medulla responsible for? |
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Definition
| controls vital life functions such as heart rate, swallowing, and breathing |
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Term
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Definition
| acts as a bridge between medulla and other structures; influences sleep and arousal |
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Term
| where is the cerebellum located and what is it responsible for? |
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Definition
located at base of brain
Regulates posture, muscle tone, and muscular coordination |
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Term
| what does the medulla and brainstem include and what is it associated with? |
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Definition
| reticular formation (RF); associated with alertness, attention, and some reflexes (breathing, coughing, sneezing, vomiting) |
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Term
| what is the reticular activating system (RAS)? |
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Definition
*part of reticular formation,RF, that keeps it active and alert
*RAS acts like the brain’s alarm clock
*activates and arouses cerebral cortex |
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Term
| what is the limbic system? |
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Definition
| closely linked to emotional response and motivating behavior; includes parts of the hypothalamus, the amygdala, and the hippocampus |
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Term
| what does the thalamus do? |
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Definition
| relays sensory information on the way to the cortex; switchboard |
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Term
| what does the hypothalamus do? |
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Definition
| regulates emotional behaviors and motives (e.g., sex, hunger, rage, hormone release) |
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Term
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Definition
| associated with fear responses |
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Term
| what is the hippocampus and what does it help us do? |
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Definition
| associated with storing permanent memories; helps us navigate through space |
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Term
| what is the endocrine system? |
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Definition
| glands that pour chemicals (hormones) directly into the bloodstream or lymph system |
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Term
| what happens in the endocrine system? |
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Definition
| hormones are carried throughout the body, where they affect many internal activities and visible behaviors |
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Term
| what does the endocrine system include? |
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Definition
| pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, and adrenal glands |
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Term
| what is the pituitary gland and what does it do? |
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Definition
*regulates growth via growth hormone
*also releases oxytocin, which regulates behaviors involved in happiness, such as sexual activity, social bonding, and trust
*often called the “master gland” because pituitary hormones influence other glands, especially thyroid, adrenals, and gonads
Pituitary, in turn, directed by hypothalamus |
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Term
| what are the pituitary problems? |
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Definition
*too little growth hormone means person will be smaller than average
*hypopituitary dwarfism: as adults, perfectly proportioned but tiny
*treatable by using human or synthetic growth hormone; will add a few inches
*too much growth hormone leads to gigantism (excessive body growth)
*acromegaly: enlargement of arms, hands, feet, and facial bones; due to too much growth hormone secreted late in growth period |
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Term
| what is the pineal gland responsible for? |
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Definition
*regulates body rhythms and sleep cycles
*releases the hormone melatonin, which responds to daily variations in light |
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Term
| what is the thyroid gland responsible for? |
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Definition
*in neck; regulates metabolism
*hyperthyroidism: overactive thyroid; person tends to be thin, tense, excitable, nervous
*hypothyroidism: underactive thyroid; person tends to be inactive, sleepy, slow, obese, and depressed |
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Term
| what are adrenals and where are they located? |
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Definition
| arouse body, adjust to stress, regulate salt balance and sexual function; located on top of kidneys |
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Term
| what is an adrenal medulla and what does it produces? |
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Definition
| core of adrenals; produces epinephrine (adrenaline) which is associated with fear (flight) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) which is linked with anger (fight) |
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Term
| what is the adrenal cortex responsible for? |
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Definition
| produces corticoids, which regulate salt balance, among other functions |
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Term
| what are adrenal malfunctions? |
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Definition
*oversecretion of adrenal sex hormones can cause virilism: exaggerated male characteristics (bearded woman)
*may also cause premature puberty if oversecretion occurs early in life |
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Term
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Definition
| preference for right or left hand in most activities |
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Term
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Definition
| broader preference for right or left hand, foot, eye, and ear |
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Term
| what is the dominant hemisphere? |
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Definition
| usually refers to the side of the human brain that produces language, which is not necessarily the side controlling the preferred hand |
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Term
| is handedness inherited or is it shaped by your environment? |
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Definition
| Handedness is partly inherited and partly shaped by environmental factors |
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