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Chapter 1
Is psychology a science?
42
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
02/19/2007

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Term
Hindsight bias and judgmental overconfidence
Definition
HB: the tendency to believe, after learning and outcome, that one would have forseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)



illustrate why we cannot rely solely on intuition
Term
Hindsight Bias...the point to remember
Definition
HB and overconfidence lead us to overestimate our intuition. But scientific inquiry, fed dmy curious skepticism and by humilty, can help us sift reality from illusions.
Term
To sift reality from fantasy requires a scientific attitude...
Definition
being skeptical but not cynical, open but not gullible.
Term
critical thinking
Definition
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
Term
theory
Definition
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations.
Term
hypothesis
Definition
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
Term
operational definition
Definition
a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
Term
replication
Definition
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other paricipants and circumstances.
Term
scientifc method
Definition
making observations, forming theories, and then refining theories in the light of new observations.
Term
the scientifc method: a self-correcting process for asking questions and observing nature's answer. What is this process?
Definition
1) theories
ex. Low self-esteem feeds depression
2) hypotheses
ex. People with low self-esteem score higher on a depression scale.
3) research and observations
ex. Administer tests of self-esteem and depression. See if a low score on one predicts a high score on the other.Generate and refine theory...
REPEAT
Term
case study
Definition
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Term
anecdotal cases
Definition
dramatic stories, personal experiences, even psychological case examples - have a way of overwhelming general truths.
Term
Point to remember about CASE STUDIES
Definition
Individual cases can suggest fruitful ideas. What is true of all of us can be glimpsed in any one of us. But to discern the general truths that cover individual cases, we must answer questions with other methods.
Term
survey
Definition
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representitive, random sample of them.
Term
false consensus effect
Definition
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.
Term
population
Definition
all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study. (Note: except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.)
Term
random sample
Definition
a sample that fairly represents a population because each membeer has an equal chance of inclusion.
Term
naturalistic observation
Definition
observing and recording behavior in naturally occuring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Term
Best basis for generalizing...
Definition
is from a representative sample of cases.
Term
Before believing survey findings...
Definition
think critically: consider the sample. You cannot compensate for an unrepresentative sample by simply adding more people.
Term
correlation
Definition
a measure of the extent to which 2 factors vary together, and thus of how wewll either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1.
Term
perfect positive correlation
Definition
height and weight seem to increase and decrese together
Term
perfect negative correlation
Definition
as toothbrushing increases, tooth decay goes down.
Term
The point to remember about correlation:
Definition
a correlation coefficient helps us see the world more clearly by revealing the extent to which two thigns relate.
Term
The point to remember about correlation 2:
Definition
correlation indicates the possibility if a cause-effect relationship, but it does not prove causation. Knowing that 2 events are correlated need not tell us anything about causation. Remember this.
Term
illusory correlation
Definition
the perception of a relationship where none exists.
Term
The point to remember about illusory correlation:
Definition
when we notice random coincidences, we may forget that they are random and instead see them as correlated. thus we can easily deceive ourselves by seeing what is not there.
Term
experiment
Definition
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one of more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
Term
Point to remember about cause and effect:
Definition
unlike correlational studies, which uncover naturally occurring relationships, an experiment manipulates a factor to determine its effect.
Term
double-blind procedure
Definition
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placeo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
Term
placebo
Definition
experimental results caused by expectations alone.
Term
experimental condition
Definition
the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
Term
control condition
Definition
the condition of the experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Term
random assignment
Definition
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.
Term
independent variable
Definition
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Term
dependent variable
Definition
the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
Term
The point to remember about statistical reasoning:
Definition
doubt big, round, undocumented numbers. rather than swallow top-of-the-head estimates, focus on thinking smarter by applying simple statistical principles to everyday reasoning.
Term
The PTR about describing data:
Definition
think smart. when viewing figues in magazines and on television, read the scale labels and note their range.
Term
mode, mean, median
Definition
the most frequently occuring score(s) in a distribution, the arithmetic average, the middle score in a distribution
Term
The PTR about mode, mean and median
Definition
always note which measure of central tendency is reported. then, if it is a mean, consider whether a few atypical scores could be DISTORTING it.
Term
standard deviation
Definition
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Term
statisical significance
Definition
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.
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