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Chapter 15 (VPHY 3100)
Chapter 15 (VPHY 3100)
105
Physiology
Undergraduate 3
11/17/2020

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Term
why we need body defense (immune system)
Definition
Defense mechanism
-Protect against disease-causing agents (pathogens)
-Make up the immune system
Term
pathogens
Definition
disease-causing agents
Term
Innate defense
Definition
inherited; nonspecific
-Serves as a first line of defense
Term
Adaptive defense
Definition
specific
-A function of lymphocytes & changes with exposure
Term
some types of external defenses in innate defense
Definition
-skin
-saliva
-tears
-mucus
-"good" gut bacteris to outcompete the bad
-stomach acid
-epithelial barriers
Term
some epithelial barriers that function in innate defense
Definition
-Digestive tract (gastric acid, enzymes)
-Respiratory tract (mucus, cilia, enzymes)
-Genitourinary tract (acidity, pH ~4)
Term
some types of internal defense mechanisms
Definition
-fever
-interferons
-phagocytes
Term
why the integrity of the skin is important for defense
Definition
because if there's a cut, bacteria can infect and inflammation can result
Term
how stomach acid functions in external defense
Definition
degrading bacteria
Term
how mucus, cilia, and enzymes in the respiratory tract function in external defense
Definition
-mucus entraps unwanted particle
-cilia move it upward
-enzymes digest it
Term
how the acidity of the genitourinary tract (pH ~4)
Definition
reduces growth of bacteria
Term
antigen (Ag)
Definition
molecules that elicit adaptive immunity specifically bind to Ag; they mediate specific immunity
-Usually large molecules that are foreign to the body
-this is how the immune system distinguishes self from non-self
Term
Specific immunity
Definition
mediated by antigens (Ag)
Term
types of specific immunity
Definition
-Humoral immunity
-Cell-mediated immunity
Term
Humoral immunity
Definition
uses antibodies (Ab) produced by B cells
[image]
Term
Cell-mediated immunity
Definition
uses T cells to destroy host cells infected by pathogens
[image]
Term
innate immunity triggered by...
Definition
pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)
Term
the difference between Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria
Definition
whether or not there's an envelope outside the cell wall
Term
immune cells recognize PAMPs by...
Definition
Toll-like receptors (TLR’)
Term
the surface molecule on Gram-negative bacteria
Definition
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Gram “–” bacteria cell membrane
Term
the surface molecule on Gram-positive bacteria
Definition
Peptidoglycan from Gram “+” bacteria cell wall
Term
the result of PAMPs binding to TLR' to form the PAMPs-TLR’ complex
Definition
PAMPs-TLR’ complex → ↑ cytokines secretion from immune cells → activate more immune cells for further body defense → inflammation most likely to occur
Term
cytokine
Definition
it's to stimulate cells to work on something. We call that cytokine. The cytokines secreted by immune cells will activate other immune cells to be more active for a general body defense, and include an induction of inflammation
Term
difference between Gram-positive and Gram-negative based on Gram-staining
Definition
Gram staining
-Detect the presence of peptidoglycan (Gram “+”) on cell wall of bacteria
-Gram “+” bac – stained as purple/blue due to retaining crystal violet dye
-Gram “–” bac – stained as pink/red due to the existence of an outer membrane
+More resistant against antibodies, because of their impenetrable wall
Term
Inflammation
Definition
a part of the healing process when tissues are injured by pathogens, trauma etc.
-Inflammation initiates nonspecific phagocytosis by blood phagocytes (WBCs)
-Characteristics of inflammation
+Redness, swelling and pus, warmth, pain
Term
inflammation is initially caused by...
Definition
induction by PAMPs binding to TL receptor, and then initiate the inflammation
Term
what causes the redness, swelling, and warmth in inflammation?
Definition
vasodilation
Term
Inflammation initiates...
Definition
nonspecific phagocytosis by blood phagocytes (WBCs)
Term
Characteristics of inflammation
Definition
-Redness
-swelling
-pus (not always; depending on the nature of the bacterial infection)
-warmth
-pain
Term
how inflammation is initiated
Definition
Injured (infected) tissues release cytokines
→ Activate mast cells near the damaged area
→ Mast cells secrete cytokines (histamine, TNF-α, prostaglandins & leukotrienes) → dilation of blood vessels → ↑ membrane permeability → allows white blood cells to leave the blood vessel
[image]
Term
TNF-α
Definition
tumor necrosis factor alpha
Term
Effects of Cytokines from Mast Cells
Definition
-Vasodilation
-Chemotaxis
Term
vasodilation in the inflammatory pathway leads to...
Definition
diapedesis (extravasation)
[image][image]
Term
diapedesis (extravasation)
Definition
blood phagocytes exit capillaries by pseudopod movement attracts WBCs
-a kind of activity that WBC inside the blood vessel going out to the infected area
[image][image]
Term
Chemotaxis
Definition
recruit blood monocytes to the injured tissues or infected cell → macrophages → phagocytosis
[image][image]
Term
Cytokines lead to...
Definition
constriction of bronchi & bronchioles for protection of further entry of pathogen into respiratory tract
-If too severe → asthma
Term
meaning of the word vasation
Definition
part of the blood vessel
Term
meaning of the word extravasation
Definition
go out of the blood vessel
Term
the only time RBC goes out of the blood vessel
Definition
when there's a hematoma, in which the inflammatory area or the swelling area is accompanied by the presence of RBC
Term
why WBC can exit the blood vessel while RBC can't, even though WBC is about twice as big as RBC
Definition
because WBC can do psudopod movement while RBC can't
[image][image]
Term
why the WBC can do pseudopod movement while the RBC can't
Definition
chemotaxis (a type of biochemical signaling)
Term
phagocytosis in the inflammation process
Definition
Degradation of bacteria or injured cells by macrophages
[image]
Term
the pathway by which phagocytosis occurs in the inflammation process
Definition
-Tissue damage --> cell necrosis --> expressed danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) --> ↑ innate immunity & inflammation
-Pseudopod movement by macrophages --> vacuole formation --> fuse with lysosomes --> phagolysosomes
[image]
Term
DAMPs
Definition
danger associated molecule patterns
-expressed by the damaged tissue of our own cells
-can initiate in innate immunity and inflammation
[image]
Term
depiction of how phagocytosis occurs in the infected area
Definition
[image]
Term
Cells die by apoptosis (do or do not) express DAMPs
Definition
do not
Term
the types of phagocytes that arrive to the infected area and the order in which they arrive
Definition
1: neutrophils (pus formation)
2: blood monocytes (become macrophages and may serve as antigen presenting cells)
3: T lymphocytes, for specific immunity
[image][image]
Term
neutrophils
Definition
-first phagocyte to arrive to the infected area
-fights against pathogen, resulting in pus formation
Term
pus
Definition
the dead body of the neutrophil together with a dead body of the bacteria
Term
monocyte
Definition
-second phagocyte to arrive to the infected area
-in response to chemotaxis, monocytes send information from the damaged area
-engulfs bacteria
-present antigen from pathogen to other WBCs, including lymphocytes, to perform body defense
Term
T lymphocytes
Definition
-3rd phagocyte to arrive
-last resort
-responds to antigen presented by monocyte to produce specific immunity
Term
Body temperature is regulated by...
Definition
hypothalamus (thermostat)
Term
fever can be induced by...
Definition
-Exogenous pyrogens (LPS)
-Endogenous pyrogens such as interleukins (IL), or
-Endotoxin from gram “–” bac (LPS)
Term
how Endotoxin from gram “–” bac (LPS) causes fever
Definition
Endotoxin from gram “–” bac (LPS) --> stimulates WBCs --> release endogenous pyrogens (IL1-β & other cytokines) --> alter set point in hypothalamus of the brain
Term
Effects of fever
Definition
-Nonspecifically ↓ bac
-↑ neutrophil activities
-↑ interferon production
Term
Pyrogens
Definition
substance that can induce fever
Term
Interleukins
Definition
-chemicals released by WBC, leukocyte, for the communication between leukocyte. We call that interleukin
-interleukins rely on these chemicals between WBC and then induce fever.
Term
Interferons
Definition
-Are polypeptides produced by cells infected with virus
-Provide short-acting, non-specific resistance to viral infection in nearby cells
-they alert nearby cells to be more active against virus
Term
types of interferons
Definition
-α interferons
-β interferons
-γ interferons
Term
Effects of interferons
Definition
-↑ Overall immune activities by ↑ phagocytosis, ↑ killer T cell activities, ↑ natural killer cell activities, ↑ Ab production by plasma cells
-↓ tumor growth, ↓ cell division, ↓ maturation of adipocytes, RBC
Term
adaptive immunity relies on...
Definition
lymphocytes
Term
types of lymphocytes
Definition
-B cells (B lymphocytes)
-T cells (T lymphocytes)
Term
origin of B cells (B lymphocytes)
Definition
evidently bursa of Fabricius
-Named after lymphocytes processed from chicken bursa of Fabricius
Term
origin of T cells (T lymphocytes)
Definition
thymus
Term
types of B cells (B lymphocytes)
Definition
-Memory cells
-plasma cells
Term
Thymus
Definition
a kind of lymphoid tissue that present during gestation in fetus, or early childhood
Term
what happens to the thymus as the person gets older?
Definition
-gets replaced more and more by fat tissue, or adipose tissue
-when this happens, the T cells go into circulation
Term
most lymphocyte cells in the blood are...
Definition
T cells (T lymphocytes) (65-85% of blood lymphocytes)
Term
where most B cells (B lymphocytes) are found
Definition
lymphoid tissue, such as spleen, such as local lymph nodes
Term
types of T cells (T lymphocytes)
Definition
-Killer (cytotoxic) T Cells
-helper T cells
-suppressor T cells
Term
HIV virus specifically attacks...
Definition
helper T cells
Term
the "humoral" in humoral immunity means...
Definition
fluid
Term
B-cell (humoral) immunity based on...
Definition
production of antibodies, which are soluble in fluid
Term
why B-cell-mediated immunity is called humoral immunity
Definition
because the word humoral means "fluid," and it's based on production of antibodies, which are soluble in fluid
Term
B cells expand into clones, which are...
Definition
-memory cells
-plasma cells
[image]
Term
Memory cells
Definition
-long lifespan
-have the memory of this structure of a specific antigen for a long time
-waiting for the second infection by that antigen, and to expand the clone
Term
Plasma cells
Definition
-factory (2K Ab/sec)
-short-lived
Term
Combined work of memory cells and plasma cells
Definition
Combined work of memory cells and plasma cells --> Ab production
Term
antibodies (Ab)
Definition
type of globulin protein with immune function (immunoglobulin (Ig))
Term
structure of antibodies (Ab)
Definition
shape of “Y” -2 long heavy (H) chains + 2 light (L) chains -Each chain contains constant (Fc) and variable fragments (Fab) [image]
Term
variable (Fab) fragment of antibody
Definition
confers antibody (Ab) specificity
[image]
Term
the diversity of antibodies we have
Definition
1020 different Ab/person
Term
why are so many antibodies possible if we have a limited number of genes?
Definition
because we use recombination of different genetic segment, and to produce antibody that adapt to different kind of antigen and specificity
-Recombination of genes code for Hs and Ls in developing lymphocytes --> Ag-independent diversity
-Diversity further increases via somatic hypermutation --> B cells undergo Ag-dependent proliferation
Term
some categories of antibodies
Definition
-IgG
-IgA
-IgE
-IgM
-IgD
Term
most common type of antibodies
Definition
IgG antibodies
Term
IgG antibodies
Definition
main Ab in circulation
Term
IgA antibodies
Definition
main Ab in external secretions in mucosal area, such as respiratory mucosa, digestive mucosa, reproductive mucosa
-they are secreted from the mucosa into the lumen of the tract, becoming secretory IgG
Term
IgE antibodies
Definition
responsible for allergic symptoms
Term
IgM and IgD antibodies
Definition
as Ag R (I think antigen receptors) on lymphocytes
Term
secretory IgG
Definition
IgA antibodies that are secreted from the mucosal area into the lumen
Term
Killer (cytotoxic) T cells
Definition
have CD8 surface marker
-Kill pathogens by cell-mediated destruction – in contact with victim cell
-Secrete perforins --> create a pore in victim's membrane --> lysis
-Secrete granzymes --> destroy victim's DNA
[image]
Term
Helper T cells
Definition
have CD4 surface marker
-↑ Responses of both killer T cells and B cells
-HIV infects helper T cells and macrophages
[image]
Term
Suppressor (regulatory) T cells
Definition
have CD25 & CD4 surface markers
-↓ Responses of killer Ts and B cells; help protect against autoimmune responses
[image]
Term
Lymphokines
Definition
secreted by lymphocytes
-Usually called interleukin (IL)- 1, 2, 3
-they help mediate the activity of the T-cell
Term
depiction of stem cells turning into B and T lymphocytes and what they do
Definition
[image]
Term
why immunity mediated by T cells is called cell-mediated immunity
Definition
because those T cells make contact with the pathogen
Term
how Killer (cytotoxic) T cells kill pathogens
Definition
-Secrete perforins --> create a pore in victim's membrane --> lysis
-Secrete granzymes --> destroy victim's DNA
Term
granzymes
Definition
enzymes for destroying the pathogen's DNA
Term
perforins
Definition
create pores in pathogen's membrane
Term
Suppressor (regulatory) T cells help protect against...
Definition
autoimmune responses
Term
Active immunity
Definition
Require prior exposure to the specific Ag (vaccines)
-Eg. Jenner’s cowpox inoculation against smallpox
Term
Vaccines may use...
Definition
(1) live attenuated virus
(2) killed virus
(3) recombinant viral proteins
Term
Passive immunity
Definition
Donor was given active immunity, Ab --> recipients
-the recipient of the antibodies and the antivenom doesn't have time to develop active immunity
Term
comparison of active and passive immunity
Definition
[image]
Term
why being exposed to the antibodies a second time may cause an allergic response
Definition
because it already induced an antigenic effect that the active immunity will react to
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