Term
| Concrete Operational Stage |
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Definition
| Extends from about 7 to 11 years. Thought is now more logical, flexible, and organized than it was during early childhood. |
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Term
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Definition
| The capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight. |
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Term
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Definition
| Concrete operational children can also seriate mentally. |
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Term
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Definition
| Mental representations of familiar large-scale spaces, such as their neighborhood or school. |
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Term
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Definition
Preschoolers rarely engage in attentional strategies. In other
words, they fail to produce strategies when they could be helpful. |
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Term
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Definition
| Young elementary school children sometimes produce strategies, but not consistently. They fail to control, or execute, strategies effectively. |
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Term
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Definition
| Slightly later, children execute strategies consistently, but their performance either does not improve or improves less than that of older children. |
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Term
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Definition
| By the mid-elementary school years, children use strategies consistently, and performance improves. |
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Term
| Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) |
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Definition
| Which involves inattention, impulsivity, and excessive motor activity resulting in academic and social problems. |
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Term
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Definition
| Repeating information to oneself. |
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Term
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Definition
| Grouping related items together. |
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Term
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Definition
| Creating a relationship, or shared meaning, between two or more pieces of information that are not members of the same category. |
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Term
| Cognitive Self-Regulation |
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Definition
| The process of continuously monitoring progress toward a goal, checking outcomes, and redirecting unsuccessful efforts. |
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Term
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Definition
| Argued that from the beginning, children should be exposed to text in its complete form—stories, poems, letters, posters, and lists—so that they can appreciate the communicative function of written language. |
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Term
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Definition
| Believing that children should first be coached on phonics—the basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds. Only after mastering these skills should they get complex reading material. |
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Term
| Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence |
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Definition
Made up of three broad, interacting intelligences: (1) analytical intelligence, or information-processing skills; (2) creative intelligence, the capacity to solve novel problems; and (3) practical intelligence, application of intellectual
skills in everyday situations. Intelligent behavior involves balancing all three intelligences to achieve success in life according to one’s personal goals and the requirements of one’s cultural community. |
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Term
| Theory of Multiple Intelligences |
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Definition
| Defines intelligence in terms of distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to engage in a wide range of culturally valued activities. Dismissing the idea of general intelligence, Gardner proposes at least eight independent intelligences. |
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Term
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Definition
| Refers to a set of emotional abilities that enable individuals to process and adapt to emotional information. To measure it, researchers have devised items tapping emotional skills that enable people to manage their own emotions and interact competently with others. |
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Term
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Definition
| The fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype—can trigger anxiety that interferes with performance. |
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Term
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Definition
| An innovation consistent with Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development, the adult introduces purposeful teaching into the testing situation to find out what the child can attain with social support. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to think about language as a system. |
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Term
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Definition
| The teacher is the sole authority for knowledge, rules, and decision making and does most of the talking. Students are relatively passive—listening, responding when called on, and completing teacher-assigned tasks. Their progress is evaluated by how well they keep pace with a uniform set of standards for their grade. |
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Term
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Definition
| Encourages students to construct their own knowledge. Although approaches vary, many are grounded in Piaget’s theory, which views children as active agents who reflect on and coordinate their own thoughts, rather than absorbing those of others. A glance inside a constructivist classroom reveals richly equipped learning centers, small groups and individuals solving self-chosen problems, and a teacher who guides and supports in response to children’s needs. Students are evaluated by considering their progress in relation to their own prior development. |
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Term
| Social-Constructivist Classroom |
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Definition
Children participate in a wide range of challenging activities with teachers and peers, with whom they jointly construct
understandings. As children appropriate (take for themselves) the knowledge and strategies generated through working together, they become competent, contributing members of their classroom community and advance in cognitive and social development. |
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Term
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Definition
| A teacher and two to four students form a cooperative group and take turns leading dialogues on the content of a text passage. Within the dialogues, group members apply four cognitive strategies: questioning, summarizing, clarifying, and predicting. |
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Term
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Definition
| Teachers guide the overall process of learning but no other distinction is made between adult and child contributors: All participate in joint endeavors and have the authority to define and resolve problems. |
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Term
| Educational Self-Fulfilling Prophecies |
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Definition
| Children may adopt teachers’ positive or negative views and start to live up to them. |
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Term
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Definition
| Small groups of classmates work toward common goals—by resolving differences of opinion, sharing responsibilities, considering one another’s ideas, and providing one another with sufficient explanations to correct misunderstandings. |
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Term
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Definition
| Students with learning difficulties learn alongside typical students in the regular educational setting for part or all of the school day—a practice designed to prepare them for participation in society and to combat prejudices against individuals with disabilities. |
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Term
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Definition
| Great difficulty with one or more aspects of learning, usually reading. As a result, their achievement is considerably behind what would be expected on the basis of their IQ. |
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Term
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Definition
| Displaying exceptional intellectual strengths. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to produce work that is original yet appropriate—something that others have not thought of that is useful in some way. |
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Term
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Definition
| The generation of multiple and unusual possibilities when faced with a task or problem. |
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Term
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Definition
| Which involves arriving at a single correct answer and is emphasized on intelligence tests. |
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Term
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Definition
| Outstanding performance in a specific field. |
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