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Definition
| To understand and predict behavior. |
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| We define psychology today as |
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Definition
| scientific study of behavior and mental processes |
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| overt, focuses only on behavior. |
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| Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis |
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Biological influences
Psychological influences
Social |
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| Industrial Organization Psychology |
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| Studies and advises on behavior in the workplace. |
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| Clinical Psychology vs. Psychiatry |
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Definition
A clinical psychologist (Ph.D.) studies, assesses, and treats troubled people with psychotherapy.
Psychiatrists on the other hand are medical professionals (M.D.) who use treatments like drugs and psychotherapy to treat psychologically diseased patients. |
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| is the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon. |
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| curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong). |
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| a set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses. |
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-Explain the phenomena they address (they explain things that are known to be true)
-Allow us to predict new information |
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| testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory. |
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| measure or record behaviors, thoughts, or feelings in their natural state. (describe) |
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| manipulate social processes by varying some aspect of the situation. (experiment) |
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| 5 Types of Descriptive Methods |
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Definition
Naturalistic Observations
Case Studies
Archives
Surveys
Psychological Tests |
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| Naturalistic Observations |
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Definition
| observing behavior as it occurs in real-life settings. |
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Naturalistic Observations
-Advantages |
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Definition
-Behaviors are spontaneous
-Don’t rely on individuals’ ability to report on their own experiences, which might be biased or mistaken |
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Naturalistic Observations
-Disadvantage |
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Definition
-Researchers may interfere with ongoing behavior
-Some interesting behaviors are rare
-Observer Bias: researchers may selectively attend to certain events and ignore others
-Very time-consuming |
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| intensive examinations of a single person or group. |
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-Rich source of hypotheses
-Permit the detailed study of rare behaviors or unique people
-Examine individuals in their natural environments |
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Case Studies
-Disadvantage |
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Definition
-Done by one person. (therapist)
-Cannot generalize findings.
-Cannot analyze data because its coming from one person.
-Cannot test predictions because cannot analyze. |
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| public records of social behaviors. |
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-Easy access to large amounts of pre-recorded data
-Data is often accurate and unobtrusively collected |
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Many interesting social behaviors are never recorded or measured
Often difficult to make clear inferences unless many behaviors have been recorded. |
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Definition
asking people questions
about their beliefs, feelings, and behaviors |
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Definition
-Allows private, difficult-to-observe behaviors, thoughts, and feelings to be examined
-Often not costly to collect |
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-People who respond may not be representative of people in general
-People may be biased or untruthful in their responses
-Cannot draw causal inferences |
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Definition
| Descriptive methods are useful in estimating correlations. |
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Definition
| The extent to which two or more variables are associated with one another (co-occur). |
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| A mathematical, quantitative index of the strength of relation between two variables. Can be positive or negative. |
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| If two variables are highly correlated, can we infer a causal relationship between them? |
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Definition
| No, we cannot infer a causal relationship between the two. |
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| A research method in which people are randomly assigned to different, experimentally manipulated conditions |
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| Assigning participants to experimental (e.g., high frustration) and control (e.g., low frustration) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups. |
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| The variable manipulated by the experimenter (e.g., level of frustration). |
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| The variable measured by the experimenter, following exposure to the independent variable (e.g., aggressive behavior after frustration). |
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| Early social science studies did not provide people with sufficient information about research procedures and possible negative effects. |
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| IRB = Institutional Review Board |
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Definition
| committee that has been formally designated to approve, monitor, and review research involving humans with the aim to protect the rights and welfare of the research subjects. |
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| Personality is shaped by conscious perception |
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| Rogers’ View of the Person |
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-People are positive and well-intentioned.
-People naturally move toward self-improvement: Actualizing tendency. |
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| A set of qualities you view as being part of yourself |
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| includes attitudes and feelings about the self |
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| self-concept you would ideally like to have. |
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1. Self-actualization
2. Self-consistency and congruence
3. Need for positive regard |
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| An inner striving to maintain and enhance the self and maximize one’s potential. |
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| Self-Consistency & Congruence |
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Most individuals strive to maintain consistency between their actual and ideal self
When there’s a discrepancy between the actual self and experience: incongruence |
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Definition
| All individuals need to receive warmth, liking, respect, sympathy, and acceptance from significant others. |
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| 2 Types of Positive Regard |
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Definition
1. Unconditional (affection with “no strings attached”)
2. Conditional (“I’ll love you if…”) |
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| Unconditional positive regard |
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Definition
| Permits incongruities to exist without anxiety. |
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| Conditional positive regard |
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Definition
| Generates denial and/or distortions of major incongruent experiences. |
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| 3 types of parent-child interaction critical to self-esteem development: |
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Definition
-Degree of acceptance, interest, affection, and warmth
-Reward
-Rules |
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Definition
| Individuals are not treated as dependent patients but as responsible clients |
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| 3 Conditions Critical for Behavior Change in Therapy |
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Definition
1. Congruence and genuineness
2. Unconditional positive regard
3. Empathy |
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Definition
Theory ignores some critical variables.
The theory does not explain the tremendous variation in abnormal behavior. |
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Definition
| The theory explains the process of personality change in great detail. Rogers specified how positive personality change can be created. |
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Definition
Shows continuity, stability, and coherence;
Is expressed in many ways (thoughts, feelings, behaviors);
Is organized;
Is a determinant that influences how the individual relates to the social world;
Is a psychological concept, but is also assumed to link with physical, biological characteristics of the person. |
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Definition
-Sigmund Frued’s theory
-The unconscious drives our behavior |
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| Frued's views: 2 Major Points |
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Definition
1. Behavior is driven by unconscious sexual (life) and aggressive (death) instincts.
2. Individuals are energy systems. |
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Definition
1. Humans are the product of natural selection and, therefore, are not fundamentally different from other animals.
2. Unconscious, irrational, and primitive forces play a major role in human motivation and behavior (people don’t possess “free will”). |
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| Personality Structure: Levels of Consciousness |
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Definition
1. Conscious
2. Preconscious
3. Unconscious |
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| The biological substrate of humans (the nervous system), the source of all drive energy. |
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| mediator between the id and the superego. |
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| the moral branch of functioning. |
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| What motivates us? What drives our behavior? 2 Major instincts: |
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1. Life Instincts, source of sexual impulses (ego instincts: self-preservation); Energy of the life instinct = Libido.
2. Death Instincts, source of aggressive impulses (wish to die); Energy of the death instinct = Thanatos |
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Definition
1. Blocked from expression
2. Expressed without modification
3. Appear in altered expressions |
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| unconscious processes that distort reality and exclude certain feelings from awareness in order to reduce anxiety. |
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| Defense Mechanism: 1. Repression: |
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Definition
| The primary defense mechanism. Thoughts, ideas, or wishes are simply dismissed from consciousness. |
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| Defense Mechanism: 2. Reaction Formation: |
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Definition
| individuals defend against the expression of an unacceptable impulse by expressing its opposite. |
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| Defense Mechanism: 3. Rationalization: |
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Definition
| behavior is reinterpreted so it appears reasonable and acceptable. |
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| Defense Mechanism: 4. Projection: |
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Definition
| Where internal, unacceptable qualities of oneself are seen as qualities of others. |
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| Fefense Mechanism: 5. Denial: |
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Definition
| Failure to accept or acknowledge reality. |
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| Defense Mechanism: 6. Sublimation: |
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Definition
| the original object of gratification is replaced by a higher cultural goal more removed from direct expression of the instinct. |
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| Defense Mechanism: 7. Displacement: |
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| Taking frustrations out on innocent, weaker others. |
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| a major function of defense mechanisms = the protection of the self and self-esteem |
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| Summary of Psychosexual Stages: |
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Definition
Stage: Major Events:
Oral
Anal First true conflict (id/ego)
Phallic OC, EC, Identification
Latency
Genital Past conflicts resurface |
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Definition
| Develops from oral fixation; narcissistic, dependent, demanding, identify with the pleasure of receiving, impatient, jealous, and pessimistic. |
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| Develops from anal fixation. Traits of the anal character stem from processes during the anal stage that have not been relinquished. |
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| Develops from phallic fixation at stage of Oedipus or Electra Complex. |
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| Attempts to undo fixations so normal personality growth and development can resume. |
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| What happens in Psychoanalysis? |
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| Interpretation of dreams through free association. |
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| Relaxation and trust allow for unconscious impulses and wishes to be consciously expressed and evaluated. |
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| The development of attitudes toward the analyst based on attitudes held toward parental figures. (therapist = surrogate parent) |
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| Transference is encouraged by: |
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1. having individuals lie on a couch.
2. having frequent sessions. |
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| Evaluation of Psychoanalytic Theory: Contributions: |
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Definition
1. New therapy techniques
2. Stimulated the development of projective tests
3. Richness of Freud’s observations and his attention to the complexity of human behavior
4. The development of a theory that could explain most facets of behavior. |
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Definition
1. Individuals often seek stimulation rather than reduce tension.
2. Many concepts in the theory are loose and ambiguous.
3. Constructs can’t be observed or measured (e.g., id, ego, superego). |
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| 2 Types of Nervous System: |
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Definition
*Central
Nervous
System
(CNS)
*Peripheral
Nervous
System
(PNS) |
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| Central Nervous System (CNS) |
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Definition
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| Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) |
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| Sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. |
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| 2 Divisions in Peripheral Nervous System: |
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*Somatic Nervous System
*Autonomic Nervous System |
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Definition
| The division of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. |
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| Autonomic Nervous System: |
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Definition
Part of the PNS that controls the glands and other muscles. (inside body)
Sympathetic NS
Parasympathetic NS |
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| 2 Systems in Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): |
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Definition
*Sympathetic NS “Arouses”
(fight-or-flight)
*Parasympathetic NS “Calms”
(rest and digest) |
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Term
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Definition
Neocortex: outermost layer
Four Lobes:
*occipital (vision)
*temporal (hearing, language *processing, memory)
*frontal (intelligence, personality, *voluntary muscles)
*parietal (spatial location, attention, motor control) |
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| PET (positron emission tomography) Scan is a visual display of brain activity that detects a radioactive form of glucose while the brain performs a given task |
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| (magnetic resonance imaging) uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of brain tissue. |
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Definition
1. Traits are the fundamental building blocks of personality.
2. Traits are continuously distributed (not categorical). |
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| 2 Major Dimensions of Personality : |
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Definition
1. Introversion/Extraversion
2. Neuroticism (Emotional Stability/ Instability) |
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Definition
1. Openness – curiosity
2. Conscientiousness – prepared
3. Extraversion (<-> Introversion)
4. Agreeableness (<-> Dominance)
5. Neuroticism – stress responsive (negativeness) (<-> Emotional Stability) |
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| The most common element on the Earths' crust. |
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| Earths second most common element. |
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| Any naturally occurring inorganic solid that possesses an orderly internal structure and a definite chemical composition. |
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| Formed by crystallization |
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| Igneous textures controlled by: |
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| Cooling Rate, Amount of Silica, and Amount Gases |
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| Fine-Grained, Coarse-Grained, Porphyritic, and Glassy |
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| Phaneritic - coarse-grained |
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| Silicate minerals crystallize in a systematic way from magma |
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| Felsic rocks and continental crust materials |
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| Mafic rocks and oceanic crust materials |
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| physical forces that break rock into smaller and smaller pieces without changing the rock's mineral composition |
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| involves a chemical transformation of rock into one or more new compounds |
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| Mechanical Weathering 3 physical processes |
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Definition
1. Frost Wedging
2. Unloading
3. Biologic Activity |
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| Chemical Weathering 3 physical processes |
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Definition
1. Dissolution
2. Oxidation
3. Hydrolysis |
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| caused by repeated cycles of freezing and thawing. |
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| Rock that forms deep in the Earth (like granite) will begin the expand when it reaches the Earth's surface (decompression). |
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| Mechanical weathering can be accomplished by organisms such as trees and burrowing animals. |
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| The uneven charge distribution on the water molecule disrupts the attractive forces holding the halite crystal together. |
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| a chemical process that is responsible for rust forming from iron. |
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| a chemical reaction involving water |
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| Detrital Rocks Form from: |
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Mud Size Particles (Shale & Siltstone), Sand Size Particles (Sandstone), and
Gravel Size Particles (Conglomerate/Breccia) |
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| Sedimentary Rock Structures: |
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Definition
| Ripple Marks, Mud Cracks, Cross Bedding |
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| Chemical Rocks Form in Two Ways: |
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Definition
Inorganic Processes (Evaporites) and Biologic Processes
(Accumulation of Dead Sea Critters) |
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| Stages of Coal Formation: |
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| Peat, Lignite, Bituminous, and Anthracite |
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| Contact (Thermal) and Regional |
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| 3 Agents of Metamorphism: |
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Heat, Pressure (Stress), Chemically Active Fluids (H2O and CO2)
Heat provides the energy to drive chemical changes
Pressure and Stress
Chemically Active Fluids enhance metamorphic changes |
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Definition
results in changes in rocks such as increased density, growth of larger crystals,
reorientation of grains into bands, and formation of new minerals |
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| Slaty Cleavage (Slate), (Phyllite), Schistosity (Schist), Gneissic (Gneiss) |
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bulk chemical composition stays the same, but new minerals are formed
from old minerals |
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| Mass Wasting is triggered by: |
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Water, Oversteepened Slopes, Vegetation,
Earthquakes |
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| saturation reduces cohesion(stickiness) between grains & adds weight to slopes |
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| Mass Wasting - Oversteepened Slopes |
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| exceed the strenth of the materials |
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| Mass Wasting - Vegetation |
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| helps stabilize slopes with roots |
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| Mass Wasting - Earthquake |
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shaking triggers mass wasting, especially if already affected by other
controls |
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Definition
Slump (slow moving – involves rock)
Rockslide (fast moving – involves rock)
Debris Flow (fast moving – involves soil)
Earthflow (slow moving – involves soil) |
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| Valley Stream (wide & shallow) vs. Mountain Stream (deep & narrow) |
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| Stream Gradient and Channel Cross Section |
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| Reaching Base Level is the Goal of: |
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| 3 Types of Sediment Transport: |
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| Dissolved Load, Suspended Load, Bed Load |
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