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Chapter 1 -14
Prof. Herreid_Book: Life - Science of Biology
97
Biology
Undergraduate 2
09/25/2012

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Term
deductive reasoning
Definition
general to specific


applying a set of general logic rules to a particular problem
Term
inductive reasoning
Definition
specific to general


generalizing on the basis of some observations
Term
characteristics of a good hypothesis
(name 7)
Definition
1. Simple
2. Consistent with known facts
3. Probable
4. Uses physical explanations
5. Stimulates research
6. Makes predictions
7. Testable
Term
hypothesis
Definition
(from slides - guess, speculative, simple, little explanatory power)

a proposed explanation for a phenomenon
Term
theory
Definition
(from slides - major conceptual framework, certain, elaborate, great explanatory power)

well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment
Term
Charles Darwin
(name 3)
Definition
-“The Origin of Species” (1859) claiming
Evolution occurred by Natural Selection
-Trip on the HMS Beagle to South America
-Darwin “changed from an
ordinary creationist to an
extraordinary evolutionist"
Term
Galapagos Islands
(name 2)
Definition
-14 different islands with species that are related but different.
-Each island has different species of the same closely related type
Term
homology
Definition
-similar structure from a common ancestor; also, same embryology
Term
homology example
(name 2)
Definition
-forelimbs of vertebrates (i.e turtle, human, horse, bat, bird, seal; humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges)
-organ systems among vertebrates
Term
vestigial structure
Definition
structure with no apparent function or reduced function. These structures did have a function in an ancestor, but change in the life style led to the gradual disappearance.
*There is a disadvantage to keeping the structure it “gets in the way” and costs energy to maintain.
Term
vestigial structure example
(name 3)
Definition
-human: goose bumps, tail bone(coccyx), muscles to move ears/scalp
-snake:extra lung
-cave animal: blind eyes
-flightless birds: wings
Term
analogy/homoplasy
Definition
ANALOGY=Similar function of two structures independently evolved (i.e. not from a common ancestor)
Term
analogy/homoplasy example
(name 2)
Definition
-fly wings vs. bird wings
-octopi eye vs. vertebrate eye
Term
half-life
Definition
amount of time for half the atoms to disintegrate
Term
fossil dating
Definition
through measurement of parent and daughter isotopes, and use of half-life, to calculate amount of time transpired to produce result
Term
gaps in fossil records
(name 5)
Definition
-organisms unable to fossilize well(depending on organism or environment)
-hard to find
-destroyed by erosion or disturbance
-inaccessible (not physically exposed, politics)

-punctuated equilibrium: transitional species don't last long
Term
fossil evidence and example
(name 7)
Definition
-original material:mammoth in ice; mosquito in amber; bog people; skeletons
-permineralization: mineralization of organic material(forest in ash)
-carbonized film: silhouette of blackened carbon (fish)
-mold: impression in rock (seashell)
-cast: mold filled in (mud or rock) and leaving replica of organism
-chemical fossil: molecule produced by organism left behind in rock
-trace fossil: evidence left behind by organism (feces, footprint, worm tube)
Term
artificial selection and example
Definition
deliberate human selection of which animals are to mate (i.e dogs, cows, chicken; domesticated animals)
Term
criticisms of Darwin and resolution
(name 3)
Definition
intermediate steps from one specie to the other
-resolution
a)discovery of more fossils
b)discovery of transitional species(archeopteryx)
c)accurate dating of fossils possible
Term
horse evolution
(name 4)
Definition
a)increase in size
b)decrease in number of toes
c)increase in complexity of the molars
d)not linear but branching
Term
whale: a)missing links and b)key steps
(name 4 for a)(name 6 for b)
Definition
missing links
-pakicetus attocki
-ambulocetus natans
-rodhocetus kasrani's
-modern whale
key steps
-size: increase
-teeth: specialize
-tail: specializes into fluke
-nostrils: shift to top of head
-legs: front legs specialize to flippers, hind legs disappear
-ears: specialize for underwater hearing
Term
Darwin's finches
Definition
Important difference between these species that live on different islands of the Galapagos are in the size and shape of their beaks, and the beaks are highly adapted to different food sources
Term
evidence of change through natural selection
(name 3)
Definition
-fossils and living armadillos living close together
-proximal populations similar
-Galapagos: closely related animals with different traits
Term
properties of life (living organisms)
(name 7)
Definition
-consists of one or more cells
-contains genetic info
-uses genetic info to reproduce
-genetically related and have evolved
-can convert molecules from environment to new biological molecules
-able to extract energy from environment
-able to regulate internal environment
Term
natural selection
Definition
differential survival and reproduction among individuals in a population based on variation in their traits
Term
cell theory
(4 principles)
Definition
-Living organisms composed of one or more cells
-Cells, the smallest unit of life
-Cells come from pre-existing cells
-Cells are the basic unit of life
Term
DNA
Definition
long sequence of four different units called nucleotides
Term
genome
Definition
sum of ALL DNA molecules a cell contains
Term
evidence of evolution form a)fossils, b)age of earth, c)comparative anatomy, and d)molecular biology
Definition
a)oldest organism is 3.5 billion years old
b)earth is 4.6 BILLION years old
c)individual development of individual repeats sequence of events that occurred during evolution
d)simple to complex structure spectrum of cells. Sequence suggests prokaryotes 3.5BYA, and Eukaryotes 2BYA subsequently giving rise to plants, fungi and animals afterwards
Term
domains of life
(name the 3 and subdivision of one of them)
Definition
bacteria, archaea, eukarya
Term
bacteria
(name 3 characteristics)
Definition
-prokaryotes
-single celled
-peptidoglycan in cell wall,
Term
archaea
(name 3 characteristics)
Definition
prokarotes
-single celled
-different metabolic process than bacteria
Term
eukarya
(name 3 characteristics)
Definition
-eukaryotic, single-celled to mullticellular, -organelles(mitochondria/chloroplasts, nuclei, ingestion of prokaryotic cells
Term
phylogenetic tree
Definition
diagram of evolutionary relationships based on DNA, used to reconstruct past history of lineages
Term
molecular clock
Definition
-proportion of amino-acid differences over time
-average rate of of change of given gene or protein used to gauge time of divergence for a particular split in phylogeny
Term
Thomas Malthus
(name 2 facts)
Definition
-economist
-proposed rate of human population growth is greater than rate of increase in food production, therefore leading to famine(relate to high birth rate and survival in Darwin's theory of evolution)
Term
virus table
(name 5)
Definition
-RNA or DNA
-proteins with or without lipid
-reproduces inside other cells
-nanometer
-enzyme inhibitors use to treat
Term
bacteria table
(name 5)
Definition
-circular DNA
-phospholipid membrane with or without cell wall
-asexual
-1 micrometer
-anti-peptidoglycans
Term
eukaryotes/protozoa table
(name 5)
Definition
-dna linear in chromosomes
-phospholipid membrane without cell wall
-both sexual and asexual
-5 to 100 micrometers
-drugs that affect organelles or enzymes that only protists have
-
Term
prokaryote basic cell structure
(4 structures)
Definition
-plasma membrane
-cytoplasm
-ribosomes
-nucleoid
Term
eukaryote basic cell structure
(5 structures)
Definition
-plasma membrane
-chloroplasts/mitochondrion
-lysosomes
-endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi apparatus
-nucleus
Term
cell wall
Definition
support and provides shape, not major barrier to objects as opposed to plasma membrane
Term
flagella
Definition
used for pushing or pushing cell in environment(little tail)
Term
plasma membrane
Definition
regulates the traffic of material into and out of the cell and separates from outside environment
Term
DNA vs RNA
Definition
-information storage and replication vs protein production
Term
vacuole
(2 functions)
Definition
-mostly plants and protists
-storage, structure, digestion,reproduction
Term
cytoskeleton
(4 functions)
Definition
-support
-holds organelles in position and moves them
-moves cytoplasm
-anchors cell by interacting with extracellular structures
Term
chromosome
Definition
condensed string of chromatin
Term
chloroplast and thylakoids
Definition
site of photosynthesis and contain chlorophyl, containing stacks of flat, circular compartments(singular compartment is a thylakoid)
Term
organelle
Definition
membranous compartments of eukaryotic cells with specific roles ("little organs")
Term
lysosome
Definition
site for breakdown of food, cells and foreign objects
Term
Golgi apparatus
Definition
modifies, sorts, concentrates and packages proteins before use by cell/other cells
Term
nucleus
(3 characteristics)
Definition
-contains DNA
-site of DNA replication
-contains nucleolous
Term
nucleolous
Definition
ribosome manufacture from RNA and proteins
Term
smooth ER
Definition
-chemical modification for small molecules which makes them more polar(more water soluble) and therefore more easily removable
-synthesis of lipids and steroids
-glycogen degradation
Term
rough ER
Definition
receives, modifies, and sends proteins to places WITHIN the cell
Term
ribosomes
Definition
where protein synthesis takes place
Term
microtubules
Definition
cytoskeleton strucuture; rigid skeleton for some cells and acts as framework along which motor proteins can moves structures within the cell
Term
mitochondrion(sing.)
Definition
converts chemical energy of fuel molecules into an energy rich, usable form (ATP)
Term
vesicle
Definition
niclear membrane-bound droplets containing pore complexes, formed to hold pieces of nuclear envelope during cell division
Term
chromatin
Definition
unraveled DNA combined with protein
Term
centriole
Definition
involved in nuclear division
Term
dihybrid crosses
(draw table for SSYY x ssyy)
Definition
Result - 9:3:3:1 ratio for this specific example
Term
Gregor Mendel
Definition
-(1822-1844)
-experiments with garden peas
-1866: paper established field of genetics
Term
Mendel's Law of Segregation
Definition
factors that control a trait maintain a discrete identity when passed from parent to offspring
Term
multiple alleles
Definition
traits that are determined by more than two alleles
Term
genotype
Definition
trait's genetic make-up (blood type:A,B,O)
Term
phenotype
Definition
expressed trait
Term
test cross
Definition
determine the genotype of an individual with a dominant phenotype by crossing it with an individual expressing the recessive phenotype of that trait
Term
Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment
Definition
states that character traits are not connected but are inherited independent of one another
Term
pleiotropic effect
Definition
one gene has influences multiple phenotypic traits
Term
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
Definition
genes are arranged in a linear array along the chromosomes
Term
sex linkage
Definition
Traits carried on the sex chromosomes. In males, due to the presence of x-chromosome, allele for defective trait is present, trait will be expressed. In females, if one is defective, the other CAN compensate if other x chromosome, if not defective
Term
sex chromosomes
Definition
1 pair in humans, combination determines sex
Term
sex determination
Definition
xx = female, xy = male
Term
cross-over
Definition
sister chromosomes interchange some gene during meiosis
Term
genetic recombination
Definition
cross-over, which allows for variety
Term
mutant
Definition
defective/non-normal allele;base pair sequence change
Term
filial generation
Definition
offspring
Term
epistasis
Definition
phenotypic expression of one gene is affected by another gene
Term
central dogma
Definition
-DNA-transcribed-RNA-translated-POLYPEPTIDE
-RNA differs from DNA and plays a vital role in gene expression
Term
ribosome
Definition
organelle of polypeptide formation
Term
tRNA
Definition
transfer RNA carries amino-acids to the ribosome for assembly into polypeptides
Term
mRNA
Definition
messenger RNA carries a copy of a gene sequence in DNA to the site of protein synthesis at the ribosome
Term
rRNA
Definition
ribosomal RNA catalyzes peptide bond formation and provides structural framework for the ribosomes
Term
transcription
Definition
information in a DNA sequence (a gene) is copied into a complimentary RNA sequence
Term
translation
Definition
the complimentary RNA sequence is used to create the amino-acid sequence of a polypeptide
Term
RNA polymerase
Definition
catalyze the synthesis of RNA from DNA template
Term
codon
Definition
3 letter sequence that determines an amino-acid. There are start and stop codons that start and stop polypeptide formations in
Term
intron
Definition
non-coding base sequence; intervening regions within an exon
Term
exon
Definition
coding sequence; expressed regions. Intron(s) are within an exon
Term
prokaryotic vs eukaryotic gene expression
(3 general points, no specifics)
Definition
a)transcription and translation
b)gene structure
c)modification of mRNA after initial transcription but before translation
Term
prokaryotic vs eukaryotic gene expression
(transcription and translation)
Definition
at the same time in cytoplasm VS transcription in nucleus and translation, then translation in cytoplasm
Term
prokaryotic vs eukaryotic gene expression
(gene structure)
Definition
DNA sequence is read in the same order as the amino-acid sequence VS non-coding introns with coding sequence
Term
prokaryotic vs eukaryotic gene expression
(modification of mRNA after initial transcription but before translation)
Definition
none VS introns spliced out; 5' caps and 3' poly A added
Term
sickle cell anemia
Definition
recessive trait
Term
non-disjunction;Down Syndrome
Definition
missing/extra chromosome resulting from defective execution during meiosis 1 or meiosis 2; trisomy in chromosome 21
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