How does perspective taking evolve?

learned helplessness

children who develop learned helplessness attribute their failures, not their success, to ability.

When they succeed, they are likely to conclude that external events such as luck, are responsible.

* When task is difficult, these children experience on anxious loss of control. They give up without really trying

identity

adolescents well-organized self-descriptions and differentiated sense of self-esteem provide the cognitive foundation for forming an identity, first recognized by psychoanalyst Erik Erikson

As a major personality achievement and a crucial step toward becoming a productive, content adult.

Constructing an identity involves defining who you are, what you value, and the directions you choose to pursue in life.

induction

conscience formation is promoted by a type of discipline called induction, in which an adult helps the child notice others feelings by pointing out the effects to the child's misbehavior on others, noting especially their distress and making clear that child caused it. 

example; don't hit your friend Kelly, you're making her cry, now we know that's not right

what is the importance of modeling?

moral behavior is acquired just like any other set of responses: through reinforcement and modeling

example; once a child shares, reinforcement of praise "you're very nice and considerate to share."

what are characteristics of models?

• warmth and responsiveness - preschoolers are more likely to copy the prosocial actions of an adult who is warm and responsive than those of cold, distant adult.
• competence is power - children admire and therefore tend to imitate competent, powerful models-especially older peers and adults
• consistency between assertions and behavior - when models say one thing and do another

example; announce that "it's important to help others" but rarely engage in helpful acts-children generally choose the most lenient standard of behavior that adults demonstrate.

* models of helpful behavior are expecially influential in the early years

what are effects of punishment?

• frequent punishment promotes only immediate compliance, not lasting changes in behavior.
• children who are repeatedly criticized, shouted at, or hit are likely to use forceful methods under these conditions.
• harshly treated children react with anger, resentment, and a chronic sense of being personally threatened which prompts a focus on the self's distress rather than a  sympathetic orientation to other's needs.
• children who are frequently punished soon learn to avoid the punishing adult, who, as a result, has little opportunity to teach desireable behaviors.

alternatives to harsh punishment

• time out - involves removing children from the immediate setting.

ex; sending them to their rooms - until they are ready to act appropriately

• withdraw privileges - like timeout removing privileages allows parents to avoid harsh techniques

measures to increase effectiveness?

• consistency
• a warm parent-child relationship
• explanations

what is positive discipline?

how is the family a training ground for aggressive behavior?

• home observations of aggressive children reveal that anger and puntiveness quickly create a conflict-ridden family atmosphere and an "out of control" child.

- punishment

- anxiety and irritability amoung their family members

• parents can encourage indirectly, through poor supervision of children

what are social-cognitive deficits and distortions?

children who are aggressive soon acquire violant and callous view of the social world.

those who are high in reactive aggression often see hostile intent where it does not exist.

instrumental aggression

hostile aggression

overt aggression

physical aggression + verbal aggression

physical aggression - harms others through physical injury. pushing, hitting, kicking, or punching others, or destroying another's property.

verbal aggression - harms others through threat's of physical aggression, name-calling or hostile teasing.

relational aggression