Term
| What does the nervous system consist of? |
|
Definition
| neurons and supporting cells |
|
|
Term
| Where are association neurons (interneurons) located? |
|
Definition
| in the brain and spinal cord of vertebrates, together called the central nervous system (CNS) |
|
|
Term
| What do associative neurons provide for the body? |
|
Definition
| more complex reflexes and, in the case of the brain, higher associative functions, including learning and memory |
|
|
Term
| What do sensory (afferent) neurons do? |
|
Definition
| carry impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS |
|
|
Term
| what do motor (efferent) neurons do? |
|
Definition
| carry impulses away from the the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands) |
|
|
Term
| together, the motor and sensory neurons constitute the...? |
|
Definition
| peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
|
|
Term
| What is the only major phylum of animals that lack nerves? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What phylum do the simplest nervous systems occur in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How are cnidarians nervs linked to one another? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In what phylum is the first associative activity in nervous systems seen in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How many nerve cords do Platyhelminthes have? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the evolutionary changes that lead from the flatworm to the vertebrate nervous system? (5) |
|
Definition
-more sophisticated sensory mechanisms
-differentiation into central and peripheral nervous systems
-differentiation of sensory and motor areas
-increased complexity of association
-elaboration of the brain |
|
|
Term
| What is the basic structure of all neurons? |
|
Definition
| cell body, dendrites, and axon |
|
|
Term
| What do most neurons depend upon for support? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the two important supporting cells that envelope the axons of many nuerons, and what is the sheath of fatty material they envelope the axons with? |
|
Definition
| Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes; myelin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where do Schwann cells produce myelin? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where do oligodendrocytes produce myelin? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The myelin is wrapped around the axon as a ? comprised of multiple layers |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The myelin sheath is interrupted at intervals, leaving unmyelinated gaps called ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In what disease does myelin sheath degenerate? |
|
Definition
| multiple sclerosis and Tay-Sachs disease |
|
|
Term
| When a neuron is “at rest,” what do active transport channels (sodium-potassium pumps) in the neuron transport? |
|
Definition
| Na+ out of the cell and K+ ions in |
|
|
Term
| What ions cannot easily move back into the cell so the concentration of them builds up outside of the cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why do K+ ions also concentrate inside the cell but not as highly as Na+? |
|
Definition
| many K+ are able to diffuse out through open K+ channels |
|
|
Term
| What is the resting membrane potential? |
|
Definition
| a condition that strives to make the outside of the membrane more positive than the inside |
|
|
Term
| What is the voltage difference between the neuron interior and exterior? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are voltage-gated channels? |
|
Definition
| these membrane channels open and close in response to electrical voltage changes |
|
|
Term
| What is action potential? |
|
Definition
| moving local reversal of voltage |
|
|
Term
| What is the refractory period? |
|
Definition
| The period of time after an action potential has passed but before the resting potential is restored |
|
|
Term
| True or False: Axons make direct contact with other neurons or other cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the synaptic cleft? |
|
Definition
| a narrow gap, 10 to 20 nanometers across that separates the axon tip and the target neuron or tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| junction of an axon with another cell |
|
|
Term
| What is the membrane on the axon side called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the membrane on the receiving side called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How are signals from an axon carried across the synapse? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How do chemically-gated channels on the post-synaptic membrane respond to nerve impulse that reach the end of an axon? |
|
Definition
| respond by allowing ions to enter |
|
|
Term
| The vertebrate nervous system uses dozens of different kinds of neurotransmitters that fall into two classes. What are they? |
|
Definition
| excitatory synapse; inhibitory synapse |
|
|
Term
| In an excitatory synapse, the chemically-gated channel is usually a ? channel that can lead to ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In an inhibitory synapse, the chemically-gated channel is usually a ? or ? channel. This prevents ? |
|
Definition
| K+ or Cl–; an action potential |
|
|
Term
| What is the result of integration? |
|
Definition
| a large enough depolarization, an action potential will fire |
|
|
Term
| Three examples of neurotransmitters? |
|
Definition
| Acetylcholine (Ach); Glycine and GABA |
|
|
Term
| What are Biogenic amines? |
|
Definition
| a group of neurotransmitters |
|
|
Term
| What is sopamine important for? |
|
Definition
| important in controlling body movements |
|
|
Term
| What are norepinephrine and epinephrine involved in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is serotonin involved in? |
|
Definition
| is involved in sleep regulation and other emotional states |
|
|
Term
| What are neuromodulators? |
|
Definition
special long-lasting chemicals released into the synapse to
aid the release of neurotransmitters
delay the breakdown of neurotransmitters after they are reabsorbed |
|
|
Term
| Many researchers think that depression results from a shortage of ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How does Cocaine act a neuromodulator? |
|
Definition
| causes abnormal amounts of neurotransmitters to remain in the synapse for long periods |
|
|
Term
| When receptor proteins in the pleasure pathways of the brain are exposed to high levels of dopamine due to cocaine, the nerve cells respond by lowering the number of ...? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the physiological adaptation of the nervous system due to drug abuse |
|
|
Term
| What is the most complex vertebrate organ ever to evolve? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the three regions that the brain is divided into? |
|
Definition
| the hindbrain; the midbrain; the forebrain |
|
|
Term
| In mammals, the ? is the largest portion of the brains |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does the somatic (voluntary) nervous system do? |
|
Definition
| relays commands to the skeletal muscles |
|
|
Term
| What does the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system do? |
|
Definition
| relays commands to the smooth muscles of the body and to cardiac muscle |
|
|
Term
| *Look over diagram on slide 42* |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a chemical signal produced in the body |
|
|
Term
| Where are hormones produced? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| There are three big advantages to using chemical hormones as messengers rather than speedy electrical signals (like nerve signals. What are they? (3) |
|
Definition
-chemical molecules can spread to all tissues via the blood
-chemical signals can persist much longer than electrical ones
-many different kinds of chemicals can act as hormones |
|
|
Term
| The glands that produce hormones are generally controlled by the... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the two main routes the CNS uses to issue commands to the organs of the body? |
|
Definition
| the endocrine system and the motor nervous system |
|
|
Term
| What is the main switchboard of the neuroendocrine system? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does the neuroendocrine system consist of? |
|
Definition
| the endocrine system and the motor nervous system |
|
|
Term
| How does the hypothalamus control the pituitary gland? |
|
Definition
| thyrotropic-releasing hormone (TRH) |
|
|
Term
| The hypothalamus also secretes ? that keep the pituitary from secreting specific hormones. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Hormones secreted by endocrine glands belong to four different chemical categories, they are... |
|
Definition
-polypeptides
-glycoproteins
-amines
-steroids |
|
|
Term
| The path of communication taken by a hormonal signal is a series of simple steps. What is the first step? |
|
Definition
issuing the command
the hypothalamus controls the release of many hormones |
|
|
Term
| The path of communication taken by a hormonal signal is a series of simple steps. What is the second step? |
|
Definition
transporting the signal
most are transported throughout the body by the bloodstream |
|
|
Term
| The path of communication taken by a hormonal signal is a series of simple steps. What is the third step? |
|
Definition
hitting the target
the hormone binds to a receptor on the target cell |
|
|
Term
| The path of communication taken by a hormonal signal is a series of simple steps. What is the fourth step? |
|
Definition
having an effect
when the hormone binds to the receptor protein, the protein changes shape and triggers a change in cell activity |
|
|
Term
| How are steroid hormones recognized? |
|
Definition
| by protein receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus of the target cell |
|
|
Term
| Why are steroids lipid-soluble? |
|
Definition
| they are manufactured from cholesterol |
|
|
Term
| True or False: steroid hormones can pass across the lipid bilayer of the cell plasma membrane |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The complex of a steroid hormone and its receptor inside the target cell bind to DNA in the nucleus. What does this activate? |
|
Definition
| the transcription of a specific gene and a protein is subsequently synthesized |
|
|
Term
| What are Anabolic steroids? |
|
Definition
| synthetic compounds that resemble the male sex hormone, testosterone |
|
|
Term
| Where is the receptor for peptide hormones embedded? |
|
Definition
| within the plasma membrane |
|
|
Term
| The binding of the hormone to the receptor triggers changes in the...? |
|
Definition
| cytoplasmic end of the receptor protein |
|
|
Term
| What do second messengers do? |
|
Definition
second messengers activate enzymes
one of the most common is cyclic AMP (cAMP) |
|
|
Term
| What can a single hormone binding to a receptor in the plasma membrane result in? |
|
Definition
| the formation of many second messengers in the cytoplasm |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ATP by an enzyme that removes two phosphate units |
|
|
Term
| Where is the pituitary gland located and what is it's function? |
|
Definition
| located beneath the hypothalamus and is the location where nine hormones are produced |
|
|
Term
| What do the nine hormones created by the pituitary gland do? |
|
Definition
| influence other endocrine glands |
|
|
Term
| What two glands is the pituitary gland made up of? |
|
Definition
| posterior lobe; anterior lobe |
|
|
Term
| What does the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland do? |
|
Definition
| regulates water conservation and, in women, milk letdown and uterine contraction |
|
|
Term
| What does the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland do? |
|
Definition
| regulates other endocrine glands |
|
|
Term
| How are the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary connected? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH)do? |
|
Definition
| regulates the kidney’s retention of water |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| initiates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk release in mothers |
|
|
Term
| The ? is a complete gland that produces the hormones that it secretes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) do? |
|
Definition
| stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine, which in turn stimulates oxidative respiration |
|
|
Term
| What stimulates the adrenal gland to produce hormones? |
|
Definition
| adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) |
|
|
Term
| What simulates the growth of muscle and bone throughout the body? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| neurons in the hypothalamus secrete both ? and ? hormones |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
releasing and inhibiting hormones
they travel to the anterior pituitary through a special system called...? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a portal system has a second ? downstream from the front capillary bed |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does Negative feedback (feedback inhibition) control? |
|
Definition
| how target gland hormones in the anterior pituitary are produced |
|
|
Term
| when enough of the target hormone has been produced, the hormone then feeds back to the hypothalamus and inhibits the release of ...? |
|
Definition
| stimulating hormones from the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary |
|
|
Term
| True or False: The pancreas has both exocrine and endocrine functions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does the pancreas secrete? |
|
Definition
| digestive enzymes and hormones |
|
|
Term
| Where are the hormones from the pancreas produced and what are they? |
|
Definition
| in the islets of Langerhans, are insulin and glucagon |
|
|
Term
| What does insulin promote? |
|
Definition
| the accumulation of glycogen in the liver and triglycerides in fat cells |
|
|
Term
| Glucagon causes liver cells to...? |
|
Definition
| release stored glucose and to break down triglycerides |
|
|
Term
| What does the thyroid gland do? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| increases metabolic rate and promotes growth |
|
|
Term
| What can be a cause for the thyroid being not able to make enough thyroxine to inhibit the hypothalamus? |
|
Definition
| if the amount of iodine in the diet is too low |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| From lack of thyroxine the hypothalamus stimulate the thyroid to grow bigger |
|
|
Term
| Where are the adrenal glands located? |
|
Definition
| just above the kidney and each is comprised of two parts |
|
|
Term
| What is the name of the inner core of the adrenal glands and what does it produce? |
|
Definition
| medulla is the inner core and produces epinephrine and norepinephrine |
|
|
Term
| What is the name of the outer core of the adrenal glands and what does it produce? |
|
Definition
| cortex is the outer region and produces the steroid hormones cortisol and aldosterone |
|
|
Term
| The medulla releases ? and ? in times of stress |
|
Definition
| epinephrine (adrenaline; norepinephrine |
|
|
Term
| The cortex secretes ?, which acts to maintain nutritional well-being |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does Aldosterone affect? |
|
Definition
| water reabsorption in the kidney and affects both blood volume and blood pressure |
|
|
