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| An error in logic; Is a defect in an argument that is something other than false premise alone. |
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| tendency toward holding certain beliefs without justification. |
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| Confirmation bias, False Cause, and hasty generalization |
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Interpreting an observed correlation as a causal relation.
Post hoc ergo propter hoc and
Non causa pro causa |
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| Generalization based on examples that could be a-typical. (if one is then they all are) |
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| 2 part bias regarding evidence and our current beliefs. tendency to automatically except or reject confirming or refuting evidence. |
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| Fallacy of missing the point |
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| An argument is given from which a perfectly valid and sound conclusion may be drawn, yet the stated conclusion is something else |
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| Fallacies of Grammatical Analogy Only Fallacy w/certain content* |
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| Division and Composition : |
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| Attributes wrongly transferred from the parts to the whole. |
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| Either or fallacy. Disjunctive syllogism with false disjunctive premise. |
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| analogy too weak to support conclusion |
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| Makes predictions on unlikely chain of reaction (causal chain) I.E. Single step = extreme results. |
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| Begging the question (aka circular reasoning) |
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| Support for conclusion is not apparent |
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| Fallacy of Suppressed Evidence |
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| Creates presumption that the premise give a complete picture. |
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| causes an argument's form to appear validating when it is not. Equivocation and Amphiboly are different forms of ambiguity |
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| is ambiguity arising from the misleading use of a word |
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| amphiboly is ambiguity arising from the misleading use of punctuation or syntax |
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| talking about something, then changing the subject in a way that the listener doesn't catch on |
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Appeal to Ignorance
Variation on appeal to ignorance |
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| No one knows for sure, therefore its this way. Relies on personal disbeliefs. Ex. I cant imagine how people could make crop circles. So, they must be created by extra-terrestrials. |
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| Post hoc ergo propter hoc and Non causa pro causa |
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| Post hoc ergo propter hoc |
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| after this, therefore because of this", is a logical fallacy (of the questionable cause variety) that states "Since that event followed this one, that event must have been caused by this one. |
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| One event is cited as the cause of another, but, while there may actually be a connection between the two events, the hypothesis mis-locates it, either making the effect into the cause, or treating as cause and effect two events that are independent results of a common cause. |
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| Two ways analogies are used |
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1)As an illustration
2)As a premise in an argument |
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| Found in deductive arguments only; detectable by inspecting the content. Reasoning is wrong, rather than the argument itself. |
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| Detectable by inspecting form of an argument ALONE. (content is irrelevant) |
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| Appeal to force, appeal to the people, and appeal to pity. |
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| Two ways Analogies are used |
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| As an Illustration as a premise in an argument |
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| No one knows for sure, therefore its this way. |
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| Variation on Appeal to ignorance |
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| Relies on personal disbelief. Cant imagine how its done, so it must be extra-terrestrials |
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| Makes predictions on unlikely chain of events (causal chain) equals extreme results |
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| Begging the question, Complex question, False Dichotomy, and Suppressed Evidence |
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| Equivocation and amphiboly |
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| Cognitive Bias, hasty generalization, and False Cause |
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| 2 part bias regarding evidence and our current beliefs. |
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| Interpreting an observed correlation as a causal relation. Bad deliberation. |
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| When it come to making money, graduates of Harvard University make more. Which was proven wrong, after other studies were done. |
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| Based on examples that could be A-typical. e.i. If one, then all. |
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| Monkeys able to develop new words in there language to adapt to new environment. |
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| Fundamental task of science |
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| To build and define a coherent set of reliable generalizations about the natural world |
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| Material world and physical universe |
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| Science answer following question |
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| What kind of things should we expect see in the natural world. Ex. events, animals, etc |
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| Is to increase our understanding/control |
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1) make general claims about world
2) Test for reliability
3) Eliminate unreliable claims (what science is at its core) |
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1)claims about correlations
2)Claims about causal relationships |
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| Natural world is uniform across time and space. (can not prove to be the same in the future) |
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| Presumed uniformity of nature is considered to be in-provable. |
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| Benefit of assuming natural world is uniform |
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| We can make valuable predictions |
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| Science does not address.... |
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| unreliable/inconsistent phenomena |
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| Observe, explain,predict, and test. *Goes beyond the 5 senses. |
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1)Truly impartial observation (humans can not have "truly impartial observation"
2) So all observations are "theory-laden" |
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-good science begins in bias observations
- focusing observation is part of bias
- extended beyond 5 human senses |
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-The hypothesis
-expressed as a generalization
-provisional
-Enables further investigation |
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-Based on hypothesis
-Prediction gives us something to test |
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| -test accuracy of prediction |
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| Genuine Science from non science |
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-Difference is not discoverable through scientific research
-A philosophical question
-Predominant view |
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Wrote: The open society and Ugenics
** Most influential because of what he had to say about science "what research is truly scientific". |
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We can conceivably observe something that would disprove the hypothesis.
Hypothesis should be one single specific observation, that is empirically falsifiable. |
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| A way to find out we were wrong. |
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| Empirical Falsifiability Cont. |
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| Line of demarcation between science and non science. |
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Primary feature: Claims are unfalsifiable
-detailed explanations
-safe predictions
-non-physical explanations |
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Some non-scientific research/activity is represented to be "real science"
i.e. Astrology |
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