Term
|
Definition
| consists of an embryo and nutrients surrounded by a protective coat. these are the dispersive phase of seed plants. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when one sporophyte produces two types of gametangia: megaspores (females) and microspores (males) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| consists of a megasporangium, megaspore, and one or more protective integuments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| protective cover surrounding ovules. gymnosperm megaspores have one integument. angiosperm megaspores usually have two integuments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the transfer of pollen to the part of a seed plant containing the ovules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| these contain the male gametophytes, they are what microspores develop into. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are three key features of the gymnosperm life cycle? |
|
Definition
-dominance of the sporophyte generation
-development of seeds from fertilized ovules
-the transfer of sperm to ovules by pollen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| conducts most of the water and minerals and includes dead cells called tracheids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| consists of living cells and distributes sugars, amino acids, and other organic products. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organs that anchor vascular plants |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organs that increase the surface area of vascular plants, therby capturing more solar energy that is used for photosynthesis. |
|
|
Term
| what are the two types of leaves |
|
Definition
| micophylls and megaphylls |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small, spiny leaves with a single vein (these are only in lycophytes) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| leaves with a highly branched vascular system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| modified leaves with sporangia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| clusters of sporangia on the undersides of sporophylls (ferns) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cone-like structures formed from groups of sporophylls (lycophytes and gymnosperms) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| producing one type of spore that develops into a bisexual gametophyte |
|
|
Term
| what are the two phyla of seedless vascular plants? |
|
Definition
| phylum lycophyta and phylum pterophyta |
|
|
Term
| what does phylum lycophyta include? |
|
Definition
| club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts |
|
|
Term
| what does phylum pterophyta include? |
|
Definition
| ferns, horsetails, and whisk ferns and their relatives |
|
|
Term
| what are the four key traits land plants share only with charophytes? |
|
Definition
1. rose-shaped complexes for cellulose synthesis (other algae have linear protein complexes)
2. special peroxisome enzymes
3. the structure of flagellated sperm
4. the formation of a phragmoplast |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| group of microtubules that precedes cell wall formation in cytokinesis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a layer of durable polymer that prevents exposed zygotes from drying out. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| plants with embryos (land plants) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organs where the sporophyte produces spores |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| diploid cells which undergo meiosis to generate haploid spores. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organs where gametes are produced |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| female gametangia which produce eggs and are the site of fertilization |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| male gametangia which are the site of sperm production and release. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nonvascular plants which include liverworts, hornworts, and mosses. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| archaea that live in extreme environments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| live in highly saline environments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| thrive in very hot environments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an ecological relationship in which two species live in close contact, a larger host and a smaller symbiont. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| both symbiotic organisms benefit |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one organism benefits while neither harming nor helping the other in any significant way. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a parasite harms but does not kill the host. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a parasite that causes disease |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| produce disease even if the prokaryotes that produce them are not present. ex: botulism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| released only when bacteria die and their cell walls break down. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the use of organisms to remove pollutants from the environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| absorb organic molecules or ingest larger food particles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Have modified mitochondria called mitosomes
Derive energy anaerobically, for example, by glycolysis
Have two equal-sized nuclei and multiple flagella
Are often parasites, for example, Giardia intestinalis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Have reduced mitochondria called hydrogenosomes that generate some energy anaerobically
Include Trichomonas vaginalis, the pathogen that causes yeast infections in human females |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a diverse clade that includes predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs, and pathogenic parasites
The main feature distinguishing them as a clade is a spiral or crystalline rod of unknown function inside their flagella
This clade includes the kinetoplastids and euglenids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| aggregates of abiotically produced molecules surrounded by a membrane or membrane-like structure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| network of sugar polymers cross-linked by polypeptides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| relatively simple walls with lots of peptidoglycan |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an outer membrane with lipopolysaccharides that can be toxic. has less peptidoglycan. is more likely to be antibiotic resistant. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| some prokaryotes have this which helps them stick to their substrate or other individuals in a colony. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| longer than fimbrae and allow prokayotes to transfer DNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the ability to move toward or away from certain stimuli |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small rings of DNA that some species of bacteria have. |
|
|
Term
| what are the three factors that contribute to genetic diversity in prokaryotes? |
|
Definition
-rapid reproduction.
-mutation.
-some genetic recombination. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a process in which a prokaryotic cell cab take up and incorporate foreign DNA from the surrounding environment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the movement of genes between bacteria by bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process where genetic material is transfered between bacterial cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a piece of DNA that is required for the production of sex pili |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| carry genes for antibiotic resistance. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| require O2 for cellular respiration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| are poisoned by O2 and use fermentation ( anaerobic respiration) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| can survive with or without O2 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an angiosperm structure specialized for sexual reproduction. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| first whorl in a flower, made up of sepals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| brightly colored; attract pollinators |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the second whorl of a flower made up of petals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the calyx and the corolla together. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| produce pollen on their terminal anthers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the third whorl of a flower made up of stamens |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the intermost fourth whorl made up of carpels |
|
|
Term
| what does a carpel consist of? |
|
Definition
| an ovary at the base and a style leading up to a stigma where pollen is recieved. flowers can have one or multiple carpels. |
|
|
Term
| what does a stamen consist of? |
|
Definition
| a filament and terminal anther. most flowers have many stamens. |
|
|
Term
| what does a fruit consist of? |
|
Definition
| a mature ovary but it can also include other flower parts. |
|
|
Term
| what is the purpose of a fruit? |
|
Definition
| to protect seeds and aid in their dispersal. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| female gametophyte in angiosperms. the embryo sac develops within an ovule contained within an ovary at the base of a stigma. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a pore the ovule enters through. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when the pollen tube discharges two sperm into the female gametophyte within an ovule. one sperm fertilizes the egg while the other combines with two nuclei in the central cells of the female gametophyte and initiates development of food storing endosperm. double fertilization is mostly only seen in angiosperms. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 3n, developed by double fertilization, this nourishes the seed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one or two seed leaves within an embryo. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| less derived and include the flowering plants belonging to the oldest lineages. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| share some traits with basal angiosperms but are more closely related to monocots and eudicots. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| prokaryotic spheres. they occur singly, in pairs, in clusters, or in chains |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| prokaryotic rods. they are usually singular but sometimes they form chains. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the purpose of the cell wall in prokaryotes? |
|
Definition
| it maintains cell shape, provides protection, and prevents the cell from bursting in a hypotonic environment. |
|
|
Term
| what are eukaryotic cell walls usually made of? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| what most bacterial cell walls contain. it is a network of modified sugar polymers croo-linked by short polypeptides. this encloses the entire bacterium and anchors other molecules that extend from its surface. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| contain a variety of polysaccarides but lack peptidolgycan. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| have simpler walls with relatively large amounts of peptidoglycan. these come out violet . |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
have less peptidoglycan and are structurally more complex, with an outer membrane that contains lipopolysaccarides (carbs bonded to lipids). from staining, these come out red or pink.
gram negative bacteria are more dangerous; the lipid portions in the walls are often toxic and can cause fever or shock. the outer membrane of the bacteria helps defend it from your body's attack. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the cell wall of many prokaryotes is covered by a capsule which is a sticky layer of polysaccaride or protein. the capsule lets the prokaryotes stick to their substrate or to other cells in the colony. some capsules protect from dehydration and some shield the cell from the body's immune system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| protein, hair-like appendages that enable some prokaryotes to stick to their substrate. fimbriae are also known as attachment pili. they are usually shorter and more numerous than sex pili. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| appendages that pull two cells together prior to DNA transfer from one cell to the other. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the most common structure that enables prokaryotes to move. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| are covered by an extension of the plasma membrane. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| movement toward or away from a stimulus. many prokaryotes exhibit this in a heterogenous environment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| where the chromosomes of prokaryotes are located since prokaryotes lack a membrane-bounded nucleus. the nucleoid is a region of cytoplasm. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| very small rings of separately replicating DNA that is found in prokaryotic cells. most plasmids carry only a few genes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the way that prokaryotes reproduce. this is done rapidly under optimal conditions and increases exponentially but cannot go on forever because the cells usually run out of nutrients, poison themselves with metabolic wastes, are consumed by other organisms, or are faced with competition by other microorganisms. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| resistant cells developed by certain bacteria when an essential nutrient is lacking. the original cell produces a copy of its chromosome and surrounds it with a tough wall, forming the endospore. water is removed from the endospore, and its metabolism stops. the rest of the cell disintegrates, leaving jsut the endospore behind. |
|
|
Term
| what are the three factors that give rise to high levels of genetic diversity in prokaryotes? |
|
Definition
| rapid reproduction, mutation, and genetic recombination. |
|
|
Term
| how can prokaryotic DNA be brought together from different individuals? |
|
Definition
| transduction, transformation, and conjugation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the genotype and possibly phenotype of a prokaryotic cell is altered by the uptake of foreign DNA from its surroundings. this happens when a nonpathogenic cell takes up a piece of dna carrying the allele for pathogenicity. the foreign allele is then incorporated into the cell's chromosome. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when bacteriophages carry bacterial genes from one host cell to another; this is a type of horizontal gene transfer. for most phages, transduction results from accidents that occur during the phage reproductive cycle. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when genetic material is transferred between two bacterial cells (of the same or different species) that are temporarily joined. The DNA transfer is one way, one cell donates the DNA and the other receives it. Sex pili are used to attach. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a particular piece of DNA whose presence results in the ability to form sex pili and donate DNA during conjugation. The F factor can exist either as a plasmid or as a segment of DNA within the bacterial chromosome. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the F factor in its plasmid form. F+ are cells containing the F plasmid. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| resistance genes carried by plasmids that code for enzymes that destroy or hinder the effectiveness of certain antibiotics. |
|
|
Term
| do prokaryotes or eukaryotes show much nutritional diversity? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organisms that obtain energy from light. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organisms that obtain energy fro chemicals. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organisms that only need an inorganic compound as a carbon source. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| require at least one organic nutrient to make other organic compounds. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| photosynthetic organisms; make organic compounds from inorganic compounds. cyanobacteria and many other prokaryotes are photoautotrophs. plants and algae are also photoautotrophs. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| only need an inorganic compound as a carbon source. instead of using light as an energy source, they oxidize inorganic substances. this mode of nutrition is only seen in certain prokaryotes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| get energy from light but need to obtain carbon in organic form. this is unique to certain marine and halophilic (salt-loving) prokaryotes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| must consume organic molecules to obtain both energy and carbon. this is a widespread nutritional mode. it is seen in fungi, animals, most protists, and even some parasitic plants. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| use O2 for cellular respiration and cannot grow without it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| substances other than O2 accept electrons at the end of the electric transport chains. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| use O2 if it is present but can also carry out anaerobic |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of converting atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia. this can only be done by some cyanobacteria and some mehtanogens. |
|
|
Term
| the effect of nitrogen fixation |
|
Definition
| nitrogen fixation by prokayotes has a big impact on other organisms. plants cannot use atmospheric nitrogen but they can use the nitrogen compounds that the prokaryotes produce from ammonia. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| specialized cells that carry out nitrogen fixation though most cells in a filament carry out only photosynthesis. each heterocyte is surrounded by a thickened cell wall that restricts the entry of O2 produced by photosynthetic cells. intercellular connections allow heterocytes to transport fixed nitrogen to neighboring cells and to receive carbs. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| surface-coating colonies in which metabolic cooperation between different prokaryotic species often occurs. cells in a biofilm secrete signaling molecules that recruit nearby cells, causing the colonies to grow. the cells also produce proteins that stick the cells to the substrate and to one another. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| domain of prokaryotes that like extreme environments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organisms that can survive in extreme conditions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| extremeophiles that live in salty environments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| extremeophiles that live in very hot environments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a group of archaea named for the unique way they obtain energy; they use CO2 to oxodize H2, releasing methane as a waste product. methanogens are strict anaerobes, poisoned by O2. Methanogens are also important decomposers. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gram negative bacteria; includes phototrophs, chemoautotrophs, and heterotrophs. some are anaerobic while others are aerobic. this group includes the subgroups: alpha proteobacteria, beta proteobacteria, gamma proteobacteria, delta proteobacteria, and epsilon proteobacteria |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| many of these are associated with eukaryotic hosts where the bacteria convert N2 to compounds the host can used. others of this subgroup cause tumors in plants. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| very nutritionally diverse subgroups. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| some are pathogens such as salmonella. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| this subgroup contains myxobacteria which congregate into a fruiting body that release myxospores that found new colonies in favorable environments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| most of this subgroup are pathogenic to humans or other animals. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| parasites that can only survive within animal cells, depending on their hosts for resources like ATP. their gram-negative walls are rare because they lack peptidoglycan. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| helical heterotrophs that spiral through their environment by means of rotating internal, flagellum-like filaments. many are free living but some are notorious pathogenic parasites. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| photoautotrophs. these are the only prokaryotes with plantlike, oxygen-generating photosynthesis. chloroplasts likely evolved from an endosymbiotic cyanobacterium. these can be solitary or colonial and are abundant wherever there is water. they provide an enourmous amount of food for freshwater and marine ecosystems. some filamentous colonies do nitrogen fixation, converting N2 into compounds that can be used in the synthesis of amino acids and other organic molecules. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| very diverse. the actinomycetes form colonies containing branched chains of cells. most actinomycetes are free living species that help decompose the organic matter in soil. these are often used as a source of antibiotics. gram positive bacteria also include many solitary species like bacillus anthracis which causes anthrax and clostridium botulinum which causes botulism. staph and staph and strep are also gram positive bacteria. mycoplasmas are the only bacteria known to lack cell walls. these are also the tiniest of all known cells. many are free living soil bacteria, but others are pathogens. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organisms that break down corpses, dead vegetation, and waste products, therby unlocking supplies of carbon, nitrogen and other elements. chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes function as decomposers. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an ecological relationship in which two species live in close contact with one another. prokaryotes participate in these relationships. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the smaller participant in a symbiotic relationship. the larger participant is the host. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an ecological interaction between two species in which both benefit. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an ecological relationship in which one species benefits while the other is not harmed or helped in any significant way. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an ecological relationship in which a parasite eats the cell contents, tissues, or body fluids of its host. parasites usually do not kill their hosts, or if they do, then it is done not immediately. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| parasites that cause disease. many are prokaryotic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| proteins secreted by certain bacteria and other organisms. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lipopolysaccaride components of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria. endotoxins are released only when the bacteria die and their cell walls break down. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the use of organisms to remove pollutants from soial, air, or water. |
|
|
Term
| what made the origin or life possible? how could the first cells have been produced? |
|
Definition
1. the abiotic synthesis of small organic molecule, such as amino acids and nucleotides.
2. the joining of these small molecules into macromolecules, including proteins and nucleic acids.
3. the packaging of these molecules into "protobionts" droplets with membranes that maintained an internal chemistry different from that of their surroundings.
4. the origin of self-replicating molecules that eventually made inheritance possible. |
|
|
Term
| what was the early atmosphere of the earth probably made of? |
|
Definition
| nitrogen and carbon dioxide that was neither oxidizing nor reducing. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| collections of abiotically produced molecules surrounded by a membrane-like structure. These may exhibit some properties of life such as metabolism and simple reproduction as well as the maintenance of a chemical environment different from that of their surroundings. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an RNA molecule that functions as an enzyme. some ribozymes can make complementary copies of short pieces of RNA, provided that they are supplied with nucleotide building blocks. |
|
|
Term
| what significance does "RNA world" hold? |
|
Definition
| the world may have started off as an RNA world, in which small RNA molecules that carried genetic information were able to replicate and to store information about the protobionts that carried them. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| layered rocks that form when certain prokaryotes bind thin films of sediment together. |
|
|
Term
| how did eukaryotic features develop from prokaryotic cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mitochondria and plastids (chloroplasts and other related organelles) were formerly small prokaryotes that begin living within larger cells. these prokaryotes were not digested and after a long time they became a permanent part of the original cells. |
|
|
Term
| why would endosymbiosis be beneficial to both organisms? |
|
Definition
| the host could use nutrients the photosynthetic endosymbionts made. if the host used oxygen, it would benefit from n endosymbiont that converted oxygen. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| supposes that mitochondria evolved before plastids through a sequence of endosymbiotic events. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an informal term applied to any eukaryote that is not a plant, animal, or a fungus. most protists are unicellular, though some are colonial or muticellular. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-some propel themselves with whipping flagella
-others creep using bob-like appendages |
|
|
Term
| give an example of an organelle protists have hat most eukaryotic cells do not? |
|
Definition
| contractile vacuoles that pump extra water from the protisan cell. |
|
|
Term
| what kinds of protists are there? autotrophs? heterotrophs? etc? |
|
Definition
| some are photoautotrophs and contain chloroplasts. some are heterotrophs and absorb organic molecules or ingest larger food particles. others are mixotrophs and combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organisms that are capable of both photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition. |
|
|
Term
| how has protist diversity arisen? |
|
Definition
| most likely by endosymbiosis. |
|
|
Term
| what is a likely hypothesis to the development of plastids in eukaryotes? |
|
Definition
| many scholars believe that a heterotrophic eukaryote acquired a photosynthetic cyanobacterium as a symbiont and this bacteria eventually became a plastid. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when a cell that gained something by symbiosis is ingested by a bigger host. red and green algae underwent secondary symbiosis on several occassions during eukaryotic evolution. they were ingested in the food vacuole of heterotrophic eukaryotes and became endosymbionts themselves. |
|
|
Term
| what are the five protist supergroups? |
|
Definition
| excavata, chromalveolata, rhizaria, archaeplastida, unikonta |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
some members of this group have an excavated groove on one side of their body.
-two major clades are the parabasalids and the diplomonads and these two clades have modified mitochondria.
-many members of this clade share unique cytoskeletal features
-the euglenozoans have unique flagella
-excavates include parasites like Giardia as well as many predatory and photosynthetic species. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-this group may have originated by secondary symbiosis.
-include some of the most important photosynthetic organisms on earth including the diatoms
-also includes important pathogens like Plasmodium which causes malaria and Phytophthora which caused the Irish potato famine.
-includes brown algae which form "kelp forests"
-the two subgroups in chromalveolata are the alveolates and the stramenopiles. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -consists of species of amoebas, most of which have pseudopodia that are threadlike in shape. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| extensions that can bulge from any portion of the cell; they are used for movement and in the capture of prey. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-includes red algae and green algae along with land plants
-red algae and green algae include unicellular species, colonial species (like Volvox) and multicellular species
-protists in this group include key photosynthetic species that are the base of the food web in some aquatic communities. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-includes amoebas that have lobe or tube-shaped pseudopodia.
-also includes animals, fungi, and protists that are closely related to animals or fungi. |
|
|
Term
| what do the excavates include? |
|
Definition
-diplomonads
-parabasalids
-euglenozoans |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-lack plastids and have modified mitochondria
-most are found in anaerobic environments
-their modified mitochondria are called mitosomes. the mitosomes lack functional electron transport chains and cannot use oxygen to get energy from carbs.
-they have two equal-sized nuclei and multiple flagella.
-many diplomonads are parasites. example is Giardia intestinalis |
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-lack plastids and have modified mitochondria
-most are found in anaerobic environments
-their modified mitochondria are called hydrogenosomes. Hydrogenosomes generate some energy anaerobically, releasing hydrogen gas as a by product.
-example is Trichomonas vaginalis, an STD. |
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| extensions of the cytoplasm, consisting of bundles of microtubules covered by the cell's plasma membrane |
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| filaments composed of the globular protein flagellin attached to the cell surface |
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-this clade is very diverse, includes predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs, and parasites.
-main feature is a spiral or crystalline rod of unknown function inside their flagella.
-euglenozoans include the kinetoplastids and the euglenids. |
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-have a single, large mitochondrion that has a large mass of DNA called a kinetoplast.
-these protists include species that beed on prokaryotes in freshwater, marine, and moist terrestrial ecosystems, as well as species that parasitize animals, plants and other protists.
-Trypanosoma is a genus of kinetoplastids that cause sleeping sickness in humans. |
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-have a pocket at one end of the cell from which one or two flagella emerge.
-many species are mixotrophs. in the sunlight they are autotrophic but when sunlight is unavailable they become heterotrophic, absorbing organic nutrients from their environment.
-many euglenids engulf prey by phagocytosis. |
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| why is it thought that chromalveolata originated by secondary symbiosis? |
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| many species in the clade have plastids whose DNA and structure indicate that they are of red algal origin. others have reduced plastids that seem derived from a red algal endosymbiont. others dont even have plastids, but they have plastid genes in their nuclear DNA. |
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-have membrane-bounded sacs (alveoli) just under the plasma membrane.
-function of alveoli isn't known, it is thought that they stabilize the cell surface or regulate the cell's water and ion content.
-include three subgroups :dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates |
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-cells are reinforced by cellulose plates.
-two flagella make dinoflagellates spin as they move through water.
-include some of the most important photosynthetic species.
-many are mixotrophic, about half are heterotrophic.
-most common pigment in dinoflagellate plastids is carotenoids, which causes things to be red or pink. |
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-almost all are animal parasites.
-spread through hosts through tiny cells called sporozoites
-one end of these organisms (the apex) contains a complex of organelles specialized for penetrating host cells and tissues.
-they are not photosynthetic but retain a modified plasmid (apicoplast) probably of red algal origin.
-most have intricate life cycles with sexual and asexual stages. often these cycles require a host species for completion. Plasmodium is an example, it lives in both mosquitoes and humans. |
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