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| anything that has a mass and occupies space |
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| the simplest form of matter, cannot be further broken down |
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| combination of two or more atoms |
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| What are the three basic atoms making up organic matter? |
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| atoms contain several different kinds of subatomic particles |
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| positively charged particles located in the nucleus of an atom |
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| neutral particles located in nucleus of an atom |
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| negatively charges particles located in the outer shells of the atom, circulating around the central nucleus |
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number of protons in the nucleus
identifies the element |
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mass of a single atom.
number of protons and neutrons combined |
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Total number of electrons in an atom equals the number of protons in the nucleus (in a stable atom)
Forms an electron cloud around the nucleus |
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| a model resembling planets revolving around the sun; useful in visualizing the structure of atoms |
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| an atom is concidered inert when |
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| An atom with eight electrons, or four pairs, in the outermost energy level is chemically inert |
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| An atom without a full outermost energy level is chemically active |
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| atoms with fewer than eight or more than eight electrons in the outer energy level will attempt to lose, gain, or share electrons with other atoms to achieve stability |
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| Isotopes of an element contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons |
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| Isotopes have the same..... and therefore the same basic chemical properties as any other atom of the same element, but they have a different.... |
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| atomic number, atomic weight |
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| an unstable isotope that undergoes nuclear breakdown and emits nuclear particles and radiation |
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| interaction between two or more atoms that occurs as a result of activity between electrons in their outermost energy levels |
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| two or more atoms joined together |
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| consists of molecules formed by atoms of two or more elements |
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| bonds that are formed between two atoms or two molecules. A unity that occurs between two atoms. |
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| formed by transfer of electrons; strong electrostatic force that binds positively and negatively charged ions together. |
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| formed by sharing electron pairs between atoms |
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Much weaker than ionic or covalent bonds
Results from unequal charge distribution on molecules
H20 is a classic example |
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| attractions between molecules |
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| Involve the formation or breaking of chemical bonds |
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| three basic chemical reaction |
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| synthesis, decomposition and exchange |
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| all the chemical reactions that occur in body cells |
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| Chemical reactions that join simple molecules together to form more complex molecules |
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| Chemical reaction responsible for anabolism is |
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| few have carbon atoms and none have C–C or C–H bonds |
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Have at least one carbon atom and at least one C–C or C–H bond in each molecule
Often have functional groups attached to the carbon-containing core of the molecule |
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| Inorganic compounds: Water |
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| The body’s most abundant and important compound |
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| -polar, high specific heat, and universal solvent and high heat of evaporation |
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| Oxygen and carbon dioxide |
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| closely related to cellular respiration |
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| required to complete decomposition reactions necessary for the release of energy in the body |
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| produced as a by product and works as a buffer in blood |
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Large group of inorganic compounds that includes acids, bases, and salts
Substances that dissociate in solution to form ions (resulting ions are sometimes called electrolytes |
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| common and important chemical substances that are chemical opposites |
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Any substance that releases a hydrogen ion (H+) when in solution; “proton donor”
Level of acidity depends on the number of H+ a particular acid will release |
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Electrolytes that dissociate to yield hydroxide ions (OH) or other electrolytes that combine with H+
Described as “proton acceptors” |
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| assigns a value to measures of acidity and alkalinity |
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Maintain the constancy of pH
Minimize changes in the concentrations of H+ and OH
Act as a “reservoir” for hydrogen ions |
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Compound that results from chemical interaction of an acid and a base
Reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water is called a neutralization reaction |
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| organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; commonly called sugars and starches |
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| simple sugars with short carbon chains; those with six carbons are hexoses (e.g., glucose); those with five are pentoses (e.g., ribose, deoxyribose) |
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| Disaccharides and polysaccharides |
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| two (di-) or more (poly-) simple sugars bonded together through a synthesis reaction (Figure 2-18) |
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| Water-insoluble organic molecules that are critically important biological compounds |
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| what are the major roles of lipids? |
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Energy source
Structural role
Integral parts of cell membranes |
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Most abundant lipids and most concentrated source of energy
Building blocks of triglycerides are glycerol (the same for each fat molecule) and fatty acids (different for each fat and determine the chemical nature) |
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| Triglycerides are formed by |
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| all available bonds are filled, solid at room temperature |
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| fatty acids that have one or more double bonds between two carbons. liquid at room temperature. The best fatty acids for humans.. |
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Fat compounds similar to triglyceride
One end of the phospholipid is water soluble (hydrophilic); the other end is fat soluble (hydrophobic)
Phospholipids can join two different chemical environments
Phospholipids may form double layers called bilayers that make up cell membranes |
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Main component is steroid nucleus
Involved in many structural and functional roles |
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Commonly called tissue hormones; produced by cell membranes throughout the body
Effects are many and varied; however, they are released in response to a specific stimulus and are then inactivated |
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Most abundant organic compounds
Chainlike polymers |
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| basic building blocks of proteins |
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| eight amino acids that cannot be produced by the human body |
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| 12 amino acids that can be produced from molecules available in the human body |
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| of a carbon atom, an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a side chain |
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1. primary
2. secondary
3. tertiary
4. quaternary |
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| Importance of protein shape |
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| shape of protein molecules determines their function |
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| Final, functional shape of the protein molecule |
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| have lost their shape and therefore their function |
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| Proteins can be denatured by |
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| by changes in pH, temperature, radiation, and other chemicals |
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| DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)composed of |
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| Composed of deoxyribonucleotides: structural units consist of the pentose sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate group, and nitrogenous base (cytosine, thymine, guanine, or adenine) |
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| Alternating deoxyribose and phosphate units form |
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| The bases in DNA are held together by what kind of bonds |
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| RNA (ribonucleic acid) composed of |
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Composed of the pentose sugar (ribose), phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
Nitrogenous bases for RNA are adenine, uracil, guanine, or cytosine (uracil replaces thymine) |
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| Adenosine triphosphate, a nucleotide, is composed of |
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Adenosine
Ribose, a pentose sugar
Adenine, a nitrogen-containing molecule |
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| ATP, the three phosphates |
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Definition
High-energy bonds present between phosphate groups
Cleavage of high-energy bonds releases energy during catabolic reactions |
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| Adenosine triphosphate (ATP |
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Definition
Energy stored in ATP is used to do the body’s work
ATP often called the energy currency of cells
ATP is split into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphate group by a special enzyme
If ATP is depleted during prolonged exercise, creatine phosphate or ADP can be used for energy |
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| Nucleus, Cytoplasm, Plasma Membrane |
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Each cell contains a variety of membranes
what are they |
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| plasma membrane and membraneous organelles |
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| Primary structure of a cell membrane is |
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| a double layer of phospholipids. |
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| heads of phospholipids are.. |
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| ........molecules are scattered among the phospholipids to allow the membrane to function properly at body temperature |
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| Most of the bilayer is hydrophobic; therefore |
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| water and water-soluble molecules do not pass through easily |
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| gel-like internal substance of cells that includes many organelles suspended in watery intracellular fluid called cytosol |
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| Two major groups of organelles |
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| Membranous organelles and nonmembranous organells |
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Made of membranous, walled canals and flat, curving sacs arranged in parallel rows throughout the cytoplasm; extend from the plasma membrane to the nucleus
Proteins move through the canals |
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| Two types of endoplasmic reticulum, name them |
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Definition
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| Rough endoplasmic reticulum |
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Definition
Ribosomes dot the outer surface of the membranous walls
Ribosomes synthesize proteins, which move toward the Golgi apparatus and then eventually leave the cell
Function in protein synthesis and intracellular transportation |
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| Smooth endoplasmic reticulum |
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Definition
No ribosomes border the membranous wall
Functions are less well established and probably more varied than those of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
Synthesizes certain lipids and carbohydrates and creates membranes for use throughout the cell
Removes and stores calcium ions from the cell’s interior |
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| Each ribosome is a nonmembranous structure made of two pieces, a large subunit and a small subunit; each subunit is composed of rRNA and protein |
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Membranous organelle consisting of cisternae stacked on one another and located near the nucleus (Figure 3-7)
Processes protein molecules from the endoplasmic reticulum (Figure 3-8)
Processed proteins leave the final cisterna in a vesicle; contents may then be secreted to outside the cell |
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Made of microscopic membranous sacs that have “pinched off” from Golgi apparatus
The cell’s own digestive system; enzymes in lysosomes digest the protein structures of defective cell parts, including plasma membrane proteins, and particles that have become trapped in the cell |
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Hollow protein cylinders found throughout the cytoplasm
Break down abnormal or misfolded proteins and normal proteins no longer needed by the cell (and that may cause disease)
Break down protein molecules one at a time by tagging each one with a chain of ubiquitin molecules, unfolding the protein as it enters the proteasome, and then breaking apart peptide bonds |
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Small membranous sacs containing enzymes that detoxify harmful substances that enter the cells
Often seen in kidney and liver cells |
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Composed of microscopic sacs; wall composed of inner and outer membranes separated by fluid; thousands of particles make up enzyme molecules attached to both membranes
The “power plants” of cells; mitochondrial enzymes catalyze series of oxidation reactions that provide most of a cell’s energy supply
Each mitochondrion has a DNA molecule, which allows it to produce its own enzymes and replicate copies of itself |
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| spherical body in center of cell enclosed by an envelope with many pores |
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| The cell’s internal supporting framework; made of rigid, rodlike pieces that provide support and allow movement and mechanisms that can move the cell or its parts |
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Intricately arranged fibers of varying length that form a three-dimensional, irregularly shaped lattice
Fibers appear to support the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and “free” ribosomes |
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smallest cell fibers
Serve as “cellular muscles”
Made of thin, twisted strands of protein molecules that lie parallel to the long axis of the cell
Can slide past each other and cause shortening of the cell |
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| : twisted protein strands slightly thicker than microfilaments; form much of the supporting framework in many types of cells |
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tiny, hollow tubes that are the thickest of the cell fibers
Made of protein subunits arranged in a spiral fashion
Function to move things around inside the cell |
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