1. Inclusive (inclusiveness) - must account for a substantial quantity of behavior
2. Verifiable (verifiability) - we should be able to test in some way that it does account for behavior
3. Predictive utility - should provide reliable answers about what people are likely to do under certain circumstances, thereby giving the practitioner the opportunity to change behavior by changing conditions
4. Parsimonious (parsimony) - the simplest explanation that will account for observed phenomena (does not guarantee correctness)

Inclusivness

Humors 

Bodily Fluids

1. Blood
2. Phlegm 
3. Yellow Bile (Choler)
4. Black Bile (Melancholy)

Assumed to be the result of minimal brain dysfunction in persons with no history or brain injury.

Hyperactivity, distractibility, impulsivity, short attention span, emotional lability (changeability), perceptual problems, and clumsiness

ADD/ADHD

Caused by mothers smoking, illegal drug use, and pediatric AIDS    

A hereditary disorder of metabolism

Placing infants on special diets can prevent intellectual disabilities associated with the disorder

·      Some theorists attempt to explain mant aspects of behavior (cognitive, social, emotional, and moral) based on fixed innate developmental sequences

Intended to explain normal and deviant behavior

Sigmund Freud

Normal and aberrant human behavior may be understood and explained on the bases of progression through certain crucial stages

• Oral (dependent and aggressive)
• Anal (expulsive and retentive)
• Phallic (when gender awareness occurs)
• Latency (if successful)
• Genital (puberty)

A Stage Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget

Certain forces, biologically determined, contribute to development. The forces are those enabling the organism to adapt to the environment

assimilation & accommodation 

1. Sensory-motor (birth to 1 1/2 years)
2. Preoperational (1 1/2 to 7 years)
3. Concrete operations (7 to 11 years) 
4. Formal operations (12 years to adulthood)

Max Wertheimer

Relationship among things perceived that was important rather than the things themselves

Emphasizes rearranging thought patterns and gaining insight as a basis for learning new academic and social behaviors

--> discovery learning 

Learning is explained on the basis of insight, pattern rearrangement, and intuitive leaps.

Teachers do not impart knowledge; they merely arrange the environment to facilitate learning 

Human behavior, both adaptive and maladaptive, is learned.

Learning occurs as a result of the consequences of behavior

The contingent presentation of a stimulus immediately following a response, which increases the future ratter probability of the response

S^R1

Any observable and measurable act of an individual

(aka a response)

Teaching new behaviors through differential reinforcement of successive approximations to a specified target behavior    

Ivan Pavlov 

  Paired food powder (which elicits salivation, an automatic reflex) with a tone that would normally have no effect on the dogs’ salivation

Edward Thorndike

Law of Effect & Law of Exercise

  Any act which in a given situation produced satisfaction becomes associated with that situation, so that when the situation recurs the act is more likely than before to recur

  A response made in a particular situation becomes associated with the situation

stimulus control

John Watson

Conditioned a startle response in baby Albert by pairing a white rat (CS) with a loud noise (UCS)

Contended that all “emotional” responses were conditioned 

B.F. Skinner

  Deals with behaviors considered voluntary rather than reflexive

 Behavior modification

The use of early application of operant conditioning techniques to human beings was directed toward establishing that the principles governing animal behavior also govern human behavior 

1. Any observable movement of a living thing
2. Has one or more dimensions that can be measured
3. Impacts environment
4. Bound by laws (antecedents and consequences)

• Social
• Language
• Academic
• Daily living
• Self care
• Vocational 
• Leisure activities

• Autism
• Animal training
• Education
• Business
• Health & fitness

Field of psychology focused on analyzing and modifying human behavior and solving socially significant problems

• Analytic
• Behavioral
• Applied
• Technological
• Conceptually systematic
• Effective
• Generality

How is it possible to get someone to do something effectively?

What can the subject do?

  Those applying procedures are taking data and analyzing to determine if the intervention is bringing about the desired changes

 Any individual can replicate the procedure and get the same result

Procedures should be described in terms of the behavioral principles

Techniques must improve the behavior to a meaningful degree

Behaviors must last over time, after the procedure

Addition of a positive stimuli

SR+

Ex: Praise

Removal of an aversive stimulus

SR-

Ex: Locking the door to avoid annoying children in AM

Addition of an aversive stimulus 

SP+

Ex: Shock

Removal of a pleasant stimulus

SP-

Ex: Taking away TV time for the rest of the week

An event that follows behavior and increases some dimension of that behavior    

Behavioral Objective

 A statement that communicates a purposed change in behavior. A behavioral objective must include statements concerning the learner, the behavior, the conditions under which the behavior will be performed, and the criteria for evaluation

Specifying in measurable, observable terms a behavior targeted for change    

 Statements providing the framework for planning an academic year or an entire unit of learning. They set estimated parameters of anticipated academic and social development for which educators are responsible (also called long-term objectives)

Identify learner

Identify the target behavior

Identify conditions of the intervention

Identify criteria for acceptable performance

Providing concrete examples of a target behavior. This minimizes disagreements among observers as to the behavior’s occurrence    

The basic level of student response competence. It implies the student’s ability to perform a newly learned response to some criterion of accuracy    

The second level (after acquisition) of student competence. Fluency describes the rate at which students accurately perform a response    

 The ability to perform a response over time, even after systematic applied behavior procedures have been withdrawn

 Providing students with more practice than is required for initial mastery

Expansion of a student’s capability of performance beyond those conditions set for initial acquisition. Stimulus generalization refers to performance under conditions – that is, cues, materials, trainers, and environments – other than those present during acquisition. Maintenance refers to continued performance of learned behavior after contingencies have been withdrawn. Response generalization refers to changes in behaviors similar to those directly treated    

Knowledge

Comprehension

Application

Analysis

Synthesis

Evaluation

 A written educational plan developed for every school-aged student eligible for special education services

 Used to assist in distinguishing between a learning difficulty that simply requires supplemental instruction and a disability requiring special education services

3 Tiers

1) Provides school, grade, and/or class-wide practices acknowledged as basic to good instruction and behavior management

 2) More targeted practices

3) Intervention is provided by special education and related professionals

Behavior that can be predicted by knowledge of antecedent events and a history of reinforcement    

A philosophical belief that events, including human behavior, follow certain fixed patterns    

 Marked by consideration for others. In education, providing a safe, comfortable environment, treating all individuals with respect, and providing effective interventions

The importance of behaviors changed to the community; the acceptability of procedures to consumers    

In a general education classroom with peers of the same chronological age    

A legal term meaning that the parents (or surrogates) and the student, if appropriate, have been fully informed, in their native language or other mode of communication, of all information relevant to the activity for which consent is sought and have agreed to the activity    

Consent that is obtained without recourse to threats or rewards    

In education, the assessment of students’ progress on a regular basis and the publication of this assessment, as well as goals, objectives, and procedures, to parents, school administrators, and other parties with a right to the information