• located at the base of the brain
• divided into two parts-- the anterior and posterior
• "master gland"
• secretes several hormones that influence many different body functions

• location: the bottom portion of the diencephalon
• regulates the pituitary gland
• connects the nervous and endocrine systems
• contains receptors that monitor hormone, nutrient, and ion levels
• when activated these receptors stimulate neurosecretory neurons

• carries out the endocrine functions in the pancreas
• the pancreas contains approx 1mil islets of langerhans.
• contains five types of cells
• alpha
• beta
• delta
• PP
• epsilon

• released when serum glucose levels fall.
• stimulates the breakdown of glycogen to glucose, which raises serum glucose levels

• released when serum glucose levels increase
• stimulates cellular uptake of glucose, which decreases serum glucose levels

• released from the beta cells along with insulin
• has a synergistic relationship with insulin to control glucose

• located at the base of the neck below the larynx
• consists of two lobes on either side of the trachea
• contains several functional unites called follicles
• produces thyroxine (T4), triiodothryonine (T3), and thyrocalcitonin (calcitonin)

• The hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland to produce this hormone using the neg feedback system
• promotes the thyroid to produce t3 and t4

• along with the parathyroid hormone, regulates serum calcium levels.
• alters serum calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity (which decreases Ca release from the bone) and stimulates osteoblast activity (which increases calcium deposits in the bone)
• regulated with a neg feedback system
• secreted when serum calcium levels are high

• Anterior Pituitary Hormone
• stimulates cell growth
• primary targets: muscle and bone, where GH stimulates amino acid uptake and protein synthesis
• stimulates fat breakdown in the body

• Anterior Pituitary Hormone
• stimulates release of throxine and triiodothryonine

• Anterior Pituitary Hormone
• stimulates secretion of hormones by the adrenal cortex, especially gluccocorticoids

• Anterior Pituitary Hormone
• stimulate gamete production and hormone production by the gonads

• Anterior Pituitary Hormone
• stimulates milk production by the breast

• Anterior Pituitary Hormone
• function in humans is unknown

• Posterior pituitary hormone
• stimulates water reabsorption by the nephrons of the kidney

• Posterior pituitary hormone
• stimulates ejection of milk from breasts and uterine contractions during birth

• usually four in number
• located on the posterior surface of the htyroid
• secretes the parathyroid hormone (PTH)

• works opposite of calcitonin to regulate serum calcium levels
• secreted when serum calcium levels drop
• increases serum calcium levels by increasing osteoclast activity (which increases relases from the bone) as well as increasing absorption of calcium in the GI tract and kidneys

• located on each kidney
• has an inner portion (medulla) and outer portion (cortex)

• The inner portion of the adrenal gland.
• Produces Epinephrine and Norepinephrine during times of stress.

• The outer portion of the adrenal gland.
• Regulated by negative feedback involving the hypothalamus and adrenocorticotropic hormones
• Has three separate regions that produce different steroids
• Mineralocorticoids
• aldosterone
• Glucocorticoids
• cortisol
• Gonadocorticoids
• androgen
• estrogen

• mediate the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic nervous systems
• produced by the medulla of the adrenal gland

• mediate the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic nervous systems
• produced by the medulla of the adrenal gland

• secreted by the outermost region of the adrenal cortex.
• Principle mineralocorticoid is aldosterone

• Principle Mineralocorticoid
• acts to conserve soidum and water in the body

• secreted by the middle region of the adrenal cortex
• Principle glucocorticoid is cortisol

• Principle glucocorticoid
• increases serum glucose levels

• sex hormones
• secreted by the innermost region of the cortex

• a rare, complex condition in which the pituitary gland does not produce sufficient amounds of some or all of its hormones (TSH, growth hormone, ACTH, FSH, LH, prolactin melanocyte-stimulating homrone, ADH, and oxytocin)

• short stature caused by deficient levels of growth hormone, somatotroin, or somatotropin-releasing hormone

• excessive fluid excretion in the kidneys caused by deficient antidiuretic hormone levels

• a condition in which the pituitary gland secretes excessive amounts of one or all of the pituitary hormones
• most commonly caused by tumors that secrete hormone or hormone-like substances
• conditions:
• gigantism
• acromegaly
• syndrome of inappropriate ADH (SIADH)
• hyperprolactinemia
• Cushing's syndrome
• Hyperthyroidism

• refers to a group of conditions characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in insulin production, insulin action, or both.
• Can occur in three forms: type 1, type 2, and gestational

• previously called insulin-dependent DM and juvenille-onset DM
• develops with the body's immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells
• patients must have insulin delivered by injection or pump

• previously called non-insulin dependent DM and adult-onset DM
• usually begins as insulin resistance, a disorder in which the body's cells do not use insulin properly. As the need for insulin rises, the pancreas gradually loses its ability to produce it.

• a cluster of risk factors occuring together--hyperglycemia, high blood pressure, hypercholesterolemia and increased waist circumference
• not a form of DM, but it is related because metabolic syndrome increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, DM, and stroke

• refers to a visible enlargement of the thyroid gland
• usually painless, but may affect the respiratory and GI systems
• not necessarily malignant
• can occur in hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, and normal thyroid states
• iodine deficiency is the most common cause

refers to a condition in which the thyroid does not produce sufficient amounts of the thyroid hormones

may be a result of hypothalamus, pituitary, or thyroid dysfunction

refers to a condition of excessive levels of thyroid hormones.

This overabundance of thyroid hormones results in a hypermetabolic states

• rare
• advanced hypothyroidism
• Clinical manifestations:
• marked hypotension
• respiratory depression
• hypothermia
• lethargy
• coma

Protruding eyes with decreased blinking and movement

Clinical Manifestation of hyperthyroidism

Thyroid Crisis (storm)

sudden worsening of hyperthyroidism symptoms that may occur with infection or stress

• refers to a condition in which the parahtyroid gland does not produce sufficient amounts of PTH.
• can be caused by congenital defects as well as by damage following surgery, radiation, or autoimmune conditions
• results in hypocalcemia and an increase in phosphorus. Hypomagnesemia and metabolic alkalosis can develop.

• refers to a condition of excessive PTH produciton by the parathyroid glands
• may be caused by tumors, hyperplasia, or hronic hypocalcemia
• results in hypercalcemia, decreases in phosphorus, increases in magnesium, and metabolic acidosis

• rare tumor of the adrenal medulla
• the tumor excretes epinephrine and norepinephrine and can be life threatening because of the effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine.

• condition of excessive amounts of glucocorticoids
• cause is iatrogenic, resulting from ingestion of glucocorticoid medication

• refers to a deficiency of adrenal cortex hormones (glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens).
• can be caused by damage resulting from autoimmune conditions, infections, hemorrhage, and tumors.